Glossary of computer science
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This glossary of computer science is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in computer science, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including terms relevant to software, data science, and computer programming.
A
abstract data type (ADT)
A
mathematical model for
data types in which a data type is defined by its behavior (
semantics) from the point of view of a
user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. This contrasts with
data structures, which are concrete representations of data from the point of view of an implementer rather than a user.
abstract method
One with only a
signature and no
implementation body. It is often used to specify that a subclass must provide an implementation of the method. Abstract methods are used to specify
interfaces in some computer languages.
abstraction
1. In
software engineering and
computer science, the process of removing physical, spatial, or temporal details
or
attributes in the study of objects or systems in order to more closely attend to other details of interest;
it is also very similar in nature to the process of
generalization.
2. The result of this process: an
abstract concept-
object created by keeping common features or attributes to various concrete objects or systems of study.
agent architecture
A
blueprint for
software agents and
intelligent control systems depicting the arrangement of components. The architectures implemented by
intelligent agents are referred to as
cognitive architectures.
agent-based model (ABM)
A class of
computational models for
simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities such as organizations or groups) with a view to assessing their effects on the system as a whole. It combines elements of
game theory,
complex systems,
emergence,
computational sociology,
multi-agent systems, and
evolutionary programming.
Monte Carlo methods are used to introduce randomness.
aggregate function
In
database management, a
function in which the values of multiple rows are grouped together to form a single value of more significant meaning or measurement, such as a sum, count, or max.
agile software development
An approach to
software development under which requirements and solutions evolve through the collaborative effort of
self-organizing and
cross-functional teams and their
customer(s)/
end user(s).
It advocates adaptive planning, evolutionary development, early delivery, and
continual improvement, and it encourages rapid and flexible response to change.
algorithm
An unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform
calculation,
data processing, and
automated reasoning tasks. They are ubiquitous in computing technologies.
algorithm design
A method or mathematical process for problem-solving and for engineering
algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories of
operation research, such as
dynamic programming and
divide-and-conquer. Techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns,
such as the template method pattern and decorator pattern.
algorithmic efficiency
A property of an
algorithm which relates to the number of
computational resources used by the algorithm. An algorithm must be
analyzed to determine its resource usage, and the efficiency of an algorithm can be measured based on usage of different resources. Algorithmic efficiency can be thought of as analogous to engineering
productivity for a repeating or continuous process.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
A
character encoding standard for electronic communications. ASCII codes represent text in computers,
telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters.
application programming interface (API)
A set of
subroutine definitions,
communication protocols, and tools for building
software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a
computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the
programmer.
application software
Computer software designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the
user. Common examples of applications include
word processors,
spreadsheets,
accounting applications,
web browsers,
media players, aeronautical
flight simulators,
console games, and
photo editors. This contrasts with
system software, which is mainly involved with managing the computer's most basic running operations, often without direct input from the user. The collective noun application software refers to all applications collectively.
array data structure
A
data structure consisting of a collection of elements (
values or
variables), each identified by at least one array index or key. An array is stored such that the position of each element can be computed from its index
tuple by a mathematical formula.
The simplest type of data structure is a linear array, also called a one-dimensional array.
artifact
One of many kinds of tangible by-products produced during the development of
software. Some artifacts (e.g.
use cases,
class diagrams, and other
Unified Modeling Language (UML) models, requirements, and design documents) help describe the function, architecture, and design of software. Other artifacts are concerned with the process of development itself—such as project plans, business cases, and risk assessments.
artificial intelligence (AI)
Intelligence demonstrated by
machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. In
computer science, AI research is defined as the study of "
intelligent agents": devices capable of perceiving their environment and taking actions that maximize the chance of successfully achieving their goals.
Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other
human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving".
ASCII
See
American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
assertion
In
computer programming, a
statement that a
predicate (
Boolean-valued function, i.e. a true–false
expression) is always true at that point in code execution. It can help a programmer read the code, help a
compiler compile it, or help the program detect its own defects. For the latter, some programs check assertions by actually evaluating the predicate as they run and if it is not in fact true – an assertion failure – the program considers itself to be broken and typically deliberately
crashes or throws an assertion failure
exception.
associative array
An associative array, map, symbol table, or dictionary is an
abstract data type composed of a
collection of
(key, value) pairs, such that each possible key appears at most once in the collection.
Operations associated with this data type allow:
- the addition of a pair to the collection
- the removal of a pair from the collection
- the modification of an existing pair
- the lookup of a value associated with a particular key
automata theory
The study of
abstract machines and
automata, as well as the
computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in
theoretical computer science and
discrete mathematics (a subject of study in both
mathematics and
computer science).
automated reasoning
An area of
computer science and
mathematical logic dedicated to understanding different aspects of
reasoning. The study of automated reasoning helps produce
computer programs that allow computers to reason completely, or nearly completely, automatically. Although automated reasoning is considered a sub-field of
artificial intelligence, it also has connections with
theoretical computer science, and even
philosophy.
B
bandwidth
The maximum rate of data transfer across a given path. Bandwidth may be characterized as network bandwidth,
data bandwidth,
or digital bandwidth.
Bayesian programming
A formalism and a methodology for having a technique to specify
probabilistic models and solve problems when less than the necessary information is available.
benchmark
The act of running a
computer program, a set of programs, or other operations, in order to assess the relative performance of an object, normally by running a number of standard tests and trials against it.
The term benchmark is also commonly utilized for the purposes of elaborately designed benchmarking programs themselves.
best, worst and average case
Expressions of what the
resource usage is at least, at most, and on average, respectively, for a given
algorithm. Usually the resource being considered is running time, i.e.
time complexity, but it could also be memory or some other resource. Best case is the function which performs the minimum number of steps on input data of n elements; worst case is the function which performs the maximum number of steps on input data of size n; average case is the function which performs an average number of steps on input data of n elements.
big data
A term used to refer to
data sets that are too large or complex for traditional
data-processing application software to adequately deal with. Data with many cases (rows) offer greater
statistical power, while data with higher complexity (more attributes or columns) may lead to a higher
false discovery rate.
big O notation
A mathematical notation that describes the
limiting behavior of a
function when the argument tends towards a particular value or infinity. It is a member of a family of notations invented by
Paul Bachmann,
Edmund Landau,
and others, collectively called Bachmann–Landau notation or asymptotic notation.
binary number
In mathematics and
digital electronics, a number expressed in the base-2 numeral system or binary numeral system, which uses only two symbols: typically
0 (zero) and
1 (one).
binary search algorithm
A
search algorithm that finds the position of a target value within a
sorted array.
binary tree
A
tree data structure in which each node has at most two
children, which are referred to as the left child and the right child. A
recursive definition using just
set theory notions is that a (non-empty) binary tree is a
tuple (L, S, R), where L and R are binary trees or the
empty set and S is a
singleton set.
Some authors allow the binary tree to be the empty set as well.
bioinformatics
An interdisciplinary field that combines
biology,
computer science,
information engineering,
mathematics, and
statistics to develop methods and
software tools for analyzing and interpreting biological data. Bioinformatics is widely used for
in silico analyses of biological queries using mathematical and statistical techniques.
bit
A
basic unit of information used in
computing and digital communications; a portmanteau of binary digit. A
binary digit can have one of two possible
values, and may be physically represented with a two-state device. These state values are most commonly represented as either a 0or1.
bit rate (R)
In
telecommunications and
computing, the number of
bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time.
blacklist
In
computing, a basic
access control mechanism that allows through all elements (email addresses, users, passwords,
URLs,
IP addresses,
domain names, file
hashes, etc.), except those explicitly mentioned in a list of prohibited elements. Those items on the list are denied access. The opposite is a
whitelist, which means only items on the list are allowed through whatever gate is being used while all other elements are blocked. A
greylist contains items that are temporarily blocked (or temporarily allowed) until an additional step is performed.
BMP file format
A
raster graphics image file format used to store
bitmap digital images independently of the
display device (such as a
graphics adapter), used especially on
Microsoft Windows and
OS/2 operating systems.
Boolean data type
A
data type that has one of two possible values (usually denoted true and false), intended to represent the two
truth values of
logic and
Boolean algebra. It is named after
George Boole, who first defined an algebraic system of logic in the mid-19th century. The Boolean data type is primarily associated with
conditional statements, which allow different actions by changing
control flow depending on whether a programmer-specified Boolean condition evaluates to true or false. It is a special case of a more general logical data type (see
probabilistic logic)—i.e. logic need not always be Boolean.
Boolean expression
An
expression used in a
programming language that returns a
Boolean value when evaluated, that is one of true or false. A Boolean expression may be composed of a combination of the Boolean constants true or false,
Boolean-typed variables, Boolean-valued operators, and
Boolean-valued functions.
Boolean algebra
In mathematics and
mathematical logic, the branch of
algebra in which the values of the variables are the
truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0, respectively. Contrary to
elementary algebra, where the values of the variables are numbers and the prime operations are addition and multiplication, the main operations of Boolean algebra are the
conjunction and (denoted as ∧), the
disjunction or (denoted as ∨), and the
negation not (denoted as ¬). It is thus a formalism for describing logical relations in the same way that elementary algebra describes numeric relations.
byte
A
unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight
bits, representing a
binary number. Historically, the byte was the number of bits used to encode a single
character of text in a computer
and for this reason it is the smallest
addressable unit of
memory in many
computer architectures.
booting
The procedures implemented in starting up a
computer or
computer appliance until it can be used. It can be initiated by hardware such as a button press or by a software command. After the power is switched on, the computer is relatively dumb and can read only part of its storage called
read-only memory. There, a small program is stored called
firmware. It does
power-on self-tests and, most importantly, allows access to other types of memory like a
hard disk and
main memory. The firmware loads bigger
programs into the computer's
main memory and runs it.
C
callback
Any
executable code that is passed as an
argument to other code that is expected to "call back" (execute) the argument at a given time. This execution may be immediate, as in a synchronous callback, or it might happen at a later time, as in an asynchronous callback.
central processing unit (CPU)
The electronic circuitry within a
computer that carries out the
instructions of a
computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logic, controlling, and
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term "central processing unit" at least since the early 1960s.
Traditionally, the term "CPU" refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and
control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as
main memory and I/O circuitry.
character
A
unit of information that roughly corresponds to a
grapheme, grapheme-like unit, or symbol, such as in an
alphabet or
syllabary in the written form of a
natural language.
cipher
In
cryptography, an
algorithm for performing
encryption or
decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a
procedure.
class
In
object-oriented programming, an extensible program-code-template for creating
objects, providing initial values for state (
member variables) and implementations of behavior (member functions or
methods).
In many languages, the class name is used as the name for the class (the template itself), the name for the default
constructor of the class (a
subroutine that creates objects), and as the
type of objects generated by
instantiating the class; these distinct concepts are easily conflated.
class-based programming
A style of
object-oriented programming (OOP) in which inheritance occurs via defining "
classes" of
objects, instead of via the objects alone (compare
prototype-based programming).
client
A piece of
computer hardware or
software that accesses a service made available by a
server. The server is often (but not always) on another
computer system, in which case the client accesses the service by way of a
network.
The term applies to the role that programs or devices play in the
client–server model.
cleanroom software engineering
A
software development process intended to produce software with a certifiable level of
reliability. The cleanroom process was originally developed by
Harlan Mills and several of his colleagues including Alan Hevner at
IBM.
The focus of the cleanroom process is on defect prevention, rather than defect removal.
closure
A technique for implementing
lexically scoped name binding in a language with
first-class functions.
Operationally, a closure is a
record storing a
function together with an environment.
cloud computing
Shared pools of configurable computer
system resources and higher-level services that can be rapidly
provisioned with minimal management effort, often over the
Internet. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and
economies of scale, similar to a
public utility.
code library
A collection of
non-volatile resources used by
computer programs, often for
software development. These may include configuration data, documentation, help data, message templates,
pre-written code and
subroutines,
classes,
values or
type specifications. In
IBM's OS/360 and its successors they are referred to as
partitioned data sets.
coding
Computer programming is the process of designing and building an
executable computer program for accomplishing a specific
computing task. Programming involves tasks such as analysis, generating
algorithms, profiling algorithms' accuracy and resource consumption, and the implementation of algorithms in a chosen
programming language (commonly referred to as coding
). The
source code of a program is written in one or more programming languages. The purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate the performance of a task for solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in several different subjects, including knowledge of the
application domain, specialized algorithms, and formal
logic.
coding theory
The study of the properties of
codes and their respective fitness for specific applications. Codes are used for
data compression,
cryptography,
error detection and correction,
data transmission and
data storage. Codes are studied by various scientific disciplines—such as
information theory,
electrical engineering,
mathematics,
linguistics, and
computer science—for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods. This typically involves the removal of redundancy and the correction or detection of errors in the transmitted data.
cognitive science
The interdisciplinary,
scientific study of the
mind and its processes.
It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of
cognition (in a broad sense). Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform
information. Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include language, perception, memory, attention, reasoning, and emotion; to understand these faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as linguistics, psychology,
artificial intelligence,
philosophy,
neuroscience, and anthropology.
collection
A collection or container is a grouping of some variable number of data items (possibly zero) that have some shared significance to the problem being solved and need to be operated upon together in some controlled fashion. Generally, the data items will be of the same type or, in languages supporting inheritance, derived from some common ancestor type. A collection is a concept applicable to
abstract data types, and does not prescribe a specific implementation as a concrete
data structure, though often there is a conventional choice (see
Container for
type theory discussion).
comma-separated values (CSV)
A delimited
text file that uses a comma to separate values. A CSV file stores
tabular data (numbers and text) in
plain text. Each line of the file is a data
record. Each record consists of one or more
fields, separated by
commas. The use of the comma as a field separator is the source of the name for this
file format.
compiler
A
computer program that transforms computer code written in one
programming language (the source language) into another programming language (the target language). Compilers are a type of
translator that support digital devices, primarily computers. The name compiler is primarily used for programs that translate
source code from a
high-level programming language to a
lower-level language (e.g.
assembly language,
object code, or
machine code) to create an
executable program.
computability theory
also known as recursion theory, is a branch of
mathematical logic, of
computer science, and of the
theory of computation that originated in the 1930s with the study of
computable functions and
Turing degrees. The field has since expanded to include the study of generalized computability and definability. In these areas, recursion theory overlaps with
proof theory and
effective descriptive set theory.
computation
Any type of calculation
that includes both arithmetical and non-arithmetical steps and follows a well-defined
model, e.g. an
algorithm. The study of computation is paramount to the discipline of
computer science.
computational biology
Involves the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods,
mathematical modelling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, ecological, behavioural, and social systems.
The field is broadly defined and includes foundations in
biology,
applied mathematics,
statistics,
biochemistry,
chemistry,
biophysics,
molecular biology,
genetics,
genomics,
computer science, and
evolution.
Computational biology is different from
biological computing, which is a subfield of
computer science and
computer engineering using
bioengineering and
biology to build
computers.
computational chemistry
A branch of
chemistry that uses
computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of
theoretical chemistry, incorporated into efficient
computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of molecules and solids.
computational complexity theory
A subfield of
computational science which focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating these classes to each other. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an
algorithm.
computational model
A
mathematical model in
computational science that requires extensive
computational resources to study the behavior of a complex system by
computer simulation.
computational neuroscience
A branch of
neuroscience which employs mathematical models, theoretical analysis, and abstractions of the brain to understand the principles that govern the
development,
structure,
physiology, and
cognitive abilities of the
nervous system.
computational physics
Is the study and implementation of
numerical analysis to solve problems in
physics for which a
quantitative theory already exists.
Historically, computational physics was the first application of modern computers in science, and is now a subset of
computational science.
computational science
An interdisciplinary field that uses advanced computing capabilities to understand and solve complex problems. It is an area of science which spans many disciplines, but at its core it involves the development of computer models and simulations to understand complex natural systems.
computational steering
Is the practice of manually intervening with an otherwise autonomous
computational process, to change its outcome.
computer
A device that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or
logical operations automatically via
computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called
programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.
computer architecture
A set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of
computer systems. Some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation.
In other definitions computer architecture involves
instruction set architecture design,
microarchitecture design,
logic design, and
implementation.
computer data storage
A technology consisting of
computer components and
recording media that are used to retain digital
data. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of all modern computer systems.
: 15–16
computer ethics
A part of
practical philosophy concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct.
computer graphics
Pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers to computer-generated image data created with the help of specialized graphical hardware and software. It is a vast and recently developed area of computer science.
computer network
A
digital telecommunications network which allows
nodes to share resources. In computer networks,
computing devices exchange data with each other using connections (
data links) between nodes. These data links are established over
cable media such as wires or optic cables, or
wireless media such as
Wi-Fi.
computer program
Is a collection of
instructions that can be
executed by a
computer to perform a specific task.
computer programming
The process of designing and building an
executable computer program for accomplishing a specific
computing task. Programming involves tasks such as analysis, generating
algorithms, profiling algorithms' accuracy and resource consumption, and the implementation of algorithms in a chosen
programming language (commonly referred to as coding
). The
source code of a program is written in one or more programming languages. The purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate the performance of a task for solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in several different subjects, including knowledge of the
application domain, specialized algorithms, and formal
logic.
computer science
The theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of
computers. It involves the study of
algorithms that process, store, and communicate
digital information. A
computer scientist specializes in the theory of
computation and the design of computational systems.
computer scientist
A person who has acquired the knowledge of
computer science, the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their application.
computer security
The protection of
computer systems from theft or damage to their
hardware,
software, or
electronic data, as well as from
disruption or
misdirection of the services they provide.
computer vision
An interdisciplinary scientific field that deals with how computers can be made to gain high-level understanding from
digital images or
videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the
human visual system can do.
computing
Is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes study of
algorithmic processes and development of both
hardware and
software. It has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological and social aspects. Major computing fields include
computer engineering,
computer science,
cybersecurity,
data science,
information systems,
information technology and
software engineering.
concatenation
In
formal language theory and
computer programming, string concatenation is the operation of joining
character strings end-to-end. For example, the concatenation of "snow" and "ball" is "snowball". In certain formalisations of
concatenation theory, also called string theory, string concatenation is a
primitive notion.
Concurrency
The ability of different parts or units of a program, algorithm, or problem to be executed out-of-order or in partial order, without affecting the final outcome. This allows for parallel execution of the concurrent units, which can significantly improve overall speed of the execution in multi-processor and multi-core systems. In more technical terms, concurrency refers to the decomposability property of a program, algorithm, or problem into order-independent or partially-ordered components or units.
conditional
A feature of a
programming language which performs different computations or actions depending on whether a programmer-specified
Boolean condition evaluates to true or false. Apart from the case of
branch predication, this is always achieved by selectively altering the
control flow based on some condition.
container
Is a
class, a
data structure,
or an
abstract data type (ADT) whose instances are collections of other objects. In other words, they store objects in an organized way that follows specific access rules. The size of the container depends on the number of objects (elements) it contains. Underlying (inherited) implementations of various container types may vary in size and complexity, and provide flexibility in choosing the right implementation for any given scenario.
continuation-passing style (CPS)
A style of
functional programming in which
control is passed explicitly in the form of a
continuation. This is contrasted with
direct style, which is the usual style of programming.
Gerald Jay Sussman and
Guy L. Steele, Jr. coined the phrase in
AI Memo 349 (1975), which sets out the first version of the
Scheme programming language.
control flow
The order in which individual
statements,
instructions or
function calls of an
imperative program are
executed or evaluated. The emphasis on explicit control flow distinguishes an
imperative programming language from a
declarative programming language.
Creative Commons (CC)
An American
non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share.
The organization has released several
copyright-
licenses, known as
Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public.
cryptography
Or cryptology, is the practice and study of techniques for
secure communication in the presence of third parties called
adversaries.
More generally, cryptography is about constructing and analyzing
protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages;
various aspects in
information security such as data
confidentiality,
data integrity,
authentication, and
non-repudiation are central to modern cryptography. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of
mathematics,
computer science,
electrical engineering,
communication science, and
physics. Applications of cryptography include
electronic commerce,
chip-based payment cards,
digital currencies,
computer passwords, and
military communications.
CSV
See
comma-separated values.
cyberbullying
A form of
bullying or
harassment using electronic means.
cyberspace
Widespread, interconnected digital
technology.
D
daemon
In
multitasking computer
operating systems, a daemon (
/ˈdiːmən/ or
/ˈdeɪmən/)
is a
computer program that runs as a
background process, rather than being under the direct control of an interactive user. Traditionally, the process names of a daemon end with the letter d, for clarification that the process is in fact a daemon, and for differentiation between a daemon and a normal computer program. For example,
syslogd is a daemon that implements system logging facility, and sshd is a daemon that serves incoming
SSH connections.
Data
data center
A dedicated space used to house
computer systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and
data storage systems. It generally includes
redundant or backup components and infrastructure for
power supply, data communications connections, environmental controls (e.g. air conditioning and fire suppression) and various security devices.
database
An organized collection of
data, generally stored and accessed electronically from a computer system. Where databases are more complex, they are often developed using formal design and modeling techniques.
data mining
Is a process of discovering patterns in large
data sets involving methods at the intersection of
machine learning,
statistics, and
database systems.
Data mining is an
interdisciplinary subfield of
computer science and
statistics with an overall goal to extract information (with intelligent methods) from a data set and transform the information into a comprehensible structure for further use.
Data mining is the analysis step of the "knowledge discovery in databases" process, or KDD.
Aside from the raw analysis step, it also involves database and
data management aspects,
data pre-processing,
model and
inference considerations, interestingness metrics,
complexity considerations, post-processing of discovered structures,
visualization, and
online updating.
data science
An interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithms, and systems to extract knowledge and insights from
data in various forms, both structured and unstructured,
similar to
data mining. Data science is a "concept to unify statistics, data analysis, machine learning and their related methods" in order to "understand and analyze actual phenomena" with data.
It employs techniques and theories drawn from many fields within the context of mathematics, statistics,
information science, and
computer science.
data structure
A data organization, management, and storage format that enables
efficient access and modification.
More precisely, a data structure is a collection of data values, the relationships among them, and the functions or operations that can be applied to the data.
data type
An attribute of
data which tells the
compiler or
interpreter how the programmer intends to use the data. Most
programming languages support common data types of
real,
integer, and
Boolean. A data type constrains the values that an
expression, such as a
variable or a
function, might take. This data type defines the operations that can be done on the data, the meaning of the data, and the way values of that type can be stored. A type of value from which an expression may take its value.
debugging
The process of finding and resolving defects or problems within a
computer program that prevent correct operation of
computer software or the system as a whole. Debugging tactics can involve interactive debugging,
control flow analysis,
unit testing,
integration testing,
log file analysis, monitoring at the
application or
system level,
memory dumps, and
profiling.
declaration
In
computer programming, a
language construct that specifies properties of an
identifier: it declares what a word (identifier) "means".
Declarations are most commonly used for
functions,
variables,
constants, and
classes, but can also be used for other entities such as enumerations and type definitions.
Beyond the name (the identifier itself) and the kind of entity (function, variable, etc.), declarations typically specify the
data type (for variables and constants), or the
type signature (for functions); types may also include dimensions, such as for arrays. A declaration is used to announce the existence of the entity to the
compiler; this is important in those
strongly typed languages that require functions, variables, and constants, and their types, to be specified with a declaration before use, and is used in
forward declaration.
The term "declaration" is frequently contrasted with the term "definition",
but meaning and usage varies significantly between languages.
digital data
In
information theory and
information systems, the discrete, discontinuous
representation of information or works. Numbers and letters are commonly used representations.
digital signal processing (DSP)
The use of
digital processing, such as by computers or more specialized
digital signal processors, to perform a wide variety of
signal processing operations. The signals processed in this manner are a sequence of numbers that represent
samples of a
continuous variable in a domain such as time, space, or frequency.
discrete event simulation (DES)
A model of the operation of a system as a
discrete sequence of events in time. Each event occurs at a particular instant in time and marks a change of
state in the system.
Between consecutive events, no change in the system is assumed to occur; thus the
simulation can directly jump in time from one event to the next.
disk storage
(Also sometimes called drive storage) is a general category of storage mechanisms where data is recorded by various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical changes to a surface layer of one or more rotating disks. A disk drive is a device implementing such a storage mechanism. Notable types are the
hard disk drive (HDD) containing a non-removable disk, the
floppy disk drive (FDD) and its removable
floppy disk, and various
optical disc drives (ODD) and associated
optical disc media.
distributed computing
A field of
computer science that studies distributed systems. A distributed system is a system whose components are located on different
networked computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by
passing messages to one another.
The components interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components,
lack of a global clock, and independent failure of components.
Examples of distributed systems vary from
SOA-based systems to
massively multiplayer online games to
peer-to-peer applications.
divide and conquer algorithm
An
algorithm design paradigm based on multi-branched
recursion. A divide-and-conquer
algorithm works by recursively breaking down a problem into two or more sub-problems of the same or related type, until these become simple enough to be solved directly. The solutions to the sub-problems are then combined to give a solution to the original problem.
DNS
See
Domain Name System.
documentation
Written text or illustration that accompanies
computer software or is embedded in the
source code. It either explains how it operates or how to use it, and may mean different things to people in different roles.
domain
Is the targeted subject area of a
computer program. It is a term used in
software engineering. Formally it represents the target subject of a specific programming project, whether narrowly or broadly defined.
Domain Name System (DNS)
A hierarchical and decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the
Internet or to a private network. It associates various information with
domain names assigned to each of the participating entities. Most prominently, it translates more readily memorized domain names to the numerical
IP addresses needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying
network protocols. By providing a worldwide,
distributed directory service, the Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
double-precision floating-point format
A
computer number format. It represents a wide dynamic range of numerical values by using a floating
radix point.
download
In
computer networks, to receive data from a remote system, typically a
server such as a
web server, an
FTP server, an
email server, or other similar systems. This contrasts with
uploading, where data is sent to a remote server. A download is a
file offered for downloading or that has been downloaded, or the process of receiving such a file.
E
edge device
A device which provides an entry point into enterprise or service provider core networks. Examples include
routers, routing
switches,
integrated access devices (IADs), multiplexers, and a variety of
metropolitan area network (MAN) and
wide area network (WAN) access devices. Edge devices also provide connections into carrier and service provider networks. An edge device that connects a
local area network to a high speed switch or backbone (such as an ATM switch) may be called an edge concentrator.
encryption
In
cryptography, encryption is the process of
encoding information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as
plaintext, into an alternative form known as
ciphertext. Ideally, only authorized parties can decipher a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information. Encryption does not itself prevent interference but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a
pseudo-random encryption
key generated by an
algorithm. It is possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key, but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users. Historically, various forms of encryption have been used to aid in cryptography. Early encryption techniques were often utilized in military messaging. Since then, new techniques have emerged and become commonplace in all areas of modern computing.
Modern encryption schemes utilize the concepts of
public-key and
symmetric-key.
Modern encryption techniques ensure security because modern computers are inefficient at cracking the encryption.
event
An action or occurrence recognized by software, often originating
asynchronously from the external environment, that may be
handled by the software. Because an event is an entity which encapsulates the action and the contextual variables triggering the action, the acrostic mnemonic "Execution Variable Encapsulating Named Trigger" is often used to clarify the concept.
event-driven programming
A
programming paradigm in which the
flow of the program is determined by
events such as user actions (
mouse clicks, key presses),
sensor outputs, or
messages from other programs or
threads. Event-driven programming is the dominant paradigm used in
graphical user interfaces and other applications (e.g. JavaScript
web applications) that are centered on performing certain actions in response to
user input. This is also true of programming for
device drivers (e.g.
P in USB device driver stacks
).
evolutionary computing
A family of
algorithms for
global optimization inspired by
biological evolution, and the subfield of
artificial intelligence and
soft computing studying these algorithms. In technical terms, they are a family of population-based trial-and-error problem-solvers with a
metaheuristic or
stochastic optimization character.
executable
Causes a computer "to perform indicated tasks according to encoded
instructions,"
as opposed to a
data file that must be
parsed by a program to be meaningful. The exact interpretation depends upon the use - while "instructions" is traditionally taken to mean
machine code instructions for a physical
CPU, in some contexts a file containing
bytecode or
scripting language instructions may also be considered executable.
executable module
execution
In
computer and software engineering is the process by which a
computer or
virtual machine executes the instructions of a
computer program. Each instruction of a program is a description of a particular
action which to be carried out in order for a specific problem to be solved; as instructions of a program and therefore the actions they describe are being carried out by an executing machine, specific effects are produced in accordance to the
semantics of the instructions being executed.
exception handling
The process of responding to the occurrence, during
computation, of exceptions – anomalous or exceptional conditions requiring special processing – often disrupting the normal flow of
program execution. It is provided by specialized
programming language constructs,
computer hardware mechanisms like
interrupts, or
operating system IPC facilities like
signals.
Existence detection
An existence check before reading a file can catch and/or prevent a fatal error.
expression
In a
programming language, a combination of one or more
constants,
variables,
operators, and
functions that the programming language interprets (according to its particular
rules of precedence and of association) and computes to produce ("to return", in a
stateful environment) another value. This process, as for
mathematical expressions, is called evaluation.
external library
F
fault-tolerant computer system
A system designed around the concept of
fault tolerance. In essence, they must be able to continue working to a level of satisfaction in the presence of errors or breakdowns.
feasibility study
An investigation which aims to objectively and rationally uncover the strengths and weaknesses of an existing business or proposed venture, opportunities and threats present in the
natural environment, the resources required to carry through, and ultimately the prospects for success.
In its simplest terms, the two criteria to judge feasibility are cost required and value to be attained.
field
Data that has several parts, known as a
record, can be divided into fields.
Relational databases arrange data as sets of
database records, so called
rows. Each record consists of several fields; the fields of all records form the
columns.
Examples of fields: name, gender, hair colour.
filename extension
An identifier specified as a
suffix to the
name of a
computer file. The extension indicates a characteristic of the file contents or its intended use.
filter (software)
A
computer program or
subroutine to process a
stream, producing another stream. While a single filter can be used individually, they are frequently strung together to form a
pipeline.
floating point arithmetic
In
computing, floating-point arithmetic (FP) is arithmetic using formulaic representation of
real numbers as an approximation to support a
trade-off between range and precision. For this reason, floating-point computation is often found in systems which include very small and very large real numbers, which require fast processing times. A number is, in general, represented approximately to a fixed number of
significant digits (the
significand) and scaled using an
exponent in some fixed base; the base for the scaling is normally two, ten, or sixteen. A number that can be represented exactly is of the following form:
significand
×
base
exponent
,
{\displaystyle {\text{significand}}\times {\text{base}}^{\text{exponent}},}
![{\displaystyle {\text{significand}}\times {\text{base}}^{\text{exponent}},}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1d3df0e2c38ef77dd2cd42114520079bd76b6670)
where significand is an
integer, base is an integer greater than or equal to two, and exponent is also an integer.
For example:
1.2345
=
12345
⏟
significand
×
10
⏟
base
−
4
⏞
exponent
.
{\displaystyle 1.2345=\underbrace {12345} _{\text{significand}}\times \underbrace {10} _{\text{base}}\!\!\!\!\!\!^{\overbrace {-4} ^{\text{exponent}}}.}
for loop
A
control flow statement for specifying
iteration, which allows code to be
executed repeatedly. Various keywords are used to specify this statement: descendants of
ALGOL use "for", while descendants of
Fortran use "do". There are also other possibilities, e.g.
COBOL uses "PERFORM VARYING".
formal methods
A set of mathematically based techniques for the
specification, development, and
verification of
software and
hardware systems.
The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design.
formal verification
The act of
proving or disproving the
correctness of intended
algorithms underlying a system with respect to a certain
formal specification or property, using
formal methods of mathematics.
functional programming
A
programming paradigm—a style of building the structure and elements of
computer programs–that treats
computation as the evaluation of
mathematical functions and avoids changing-
state and
mutable data. It is a
declarative programming paradigm in that programming is done with
expressions or
declarations instead of
statements.
G
game theory
The study of
mathematical models of strategic interaction between rational decision-makers.
It has applications in all fields of
social science, as well as in
logic and
computer science. Originally, it addressed
zero-sum games, in which each participant's gains or losses are exactly balanced by those of the other participants. Today, game theory applies to a wide range of behavioral relations, and is now an
umbrella term for the
science of logical decision making in humans, animals, and computers.
garbage in, garbage out (GIGO)
A term used to describe the concept that flawed or nonsense
input data produces nonsense
output or "garbage". It can also refer to the unforgiving nature of
programming, in which a poorly written program might produce nonsensical behavior.
Graphics Interchange Format
gigabyte
A multiple of the unit
byte for digital information. The
prefix giga means 109 in the
International System of Units (SI). Therefore, one gigabyte is 1000000000bytes. The unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB.
global variable
In
computer programming, a variable with global
scope, meaning that it is visible (hence accessible) throughout the program, unless
shadowed. The set of all global variables is known as the global environment or global state. In compiled languages, global variables are generally
static variables, whose
extent (lifetime) is the entire runtime of the program, though in interpreted languages (including
command-line interpreters), global variables are generally dynamically allocated when declared, since they are not known ahead of time.
graph theory
In mathematics, the study of
graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. A graph in this context is made up of
vertices (also called nodes or points) which are connected by
edges (also called links or lines). A distinction is made between undirected graphs, where edges link two vertices symmetrically, and directed graphs, where edges link two vertices asymmetrically.
H
handle
In
computer programming, a handle is an abstract
reference to a
resource that is used when
application software references blocks of
memory or objects that are managed by another system like a
database or an
operating system.
hard problem
Computational complexity theory focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating these classes to each other. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm.
hash function
Any
function that can be used to map
data of arbitrary size to data of a fixed size. The values returned by a hash function are called hash values, hash codes, digests, or simply hashes. Hash functions are often used in combination with a
hash table, a common
data structure used in computer software for rapid data lookup. Hash functions accelerate table or database lookup by detecting duplicated records in a large file.
hash table
In
computing, a hash table (hash map) is a
data structure that implements an
associative array abstract data type, a structure that can map
keys to
values. A hash table uses a
hash function to compute an index into an array of buckets or slots, from which the desired value can be found.
heap
A specialized
tree-based
data structure which is essentially an almost complete
tree that satisfies the heap property: if P is a parent
node of C, then the key (the value) of P is either greater than or equal to (in a max heap) or less than or equal to (in a min heap) the key of C.
The node at the "top" of the heap (with no parents) is called the root node.
heapsort
A
comparison-based sorting algorithm. Heapsort can be thought of as an improved
selection sort: like that algorithm, it divides its input into a sorted and an unsorted region, and it iteratively shrinks the unsorted region by extracting the largest element and moving that to the sorted region. The improvement consists of the use of a
heap data structure rather than a linear-time search to find the maximum.
human-computer interaction (HCI)
Researches the design and use of computer technology, focused on the interfaces between people (
users) and computers. Researchers in the field of HCI both observe the ways in which humans interact with computers and design technologies that let humans interact with computers in novel ways. As a field of research, human–computer interaction is situated at the intersection of
computer science,
behavioral sciences,
design,
media studies, and
several other fields of study.
I
identifier
In
computer languages, identifiers are
tokens (also called
symbols) which name language entities. Some of the kinds of entities an identifier might denote include
variables,
types,
labels,
subroutines, and
packages.
IDE
Integrated development environment.
image processing
imperative programming
A
programming paradigm that uses
statements that change a program's
state. In much the same way that the
imperative mood in
natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of
commands for the computer to perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates.
incremental build model
A method of
software development where the product is
designed, implemented and
tested incrementally (a little more is added each time) until the product is finished. It involves both development and maintenance. The product is defined as finished when it satisfies all of its requirements. This model combines the elements of the
waterfall model with the iterative philosophy of
prototyping.
information space analysis
A deterministic method, enhanced by
machine intelligence, for locating and assessing
resources for team-centric efforts.
information visualization
inheritance
In
object-oriented programming, the mechanism of basing an
object or
class upon another object (
prototype-based inheritance) or class (
class-based inheritance), retaining similar implementation. Also defined as deriving new classes (
sub classes) from existing ones (super class or
base class) and forming them into a hierarchy of classes.
input/output (I/O)
The communication between an information processing system, such as a
computer, and the outside world, possibly a human or another information processing system.
Inputs are the signals or data received by the system and outputs are the signals or
data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an
input or output operation.
insertion sort
A simple
sorting algorithm that builds the final
sorted array (or list) one item at a time.
instruction cycle
The cycle which the
central processing unit (CPU) follows from
boot-up until the computer has shut down in order to process instructions. It is composed of three main stages: the fetch stage, the decode stage, and the execute stage.
integer
A datum of integral data type, a
data type that represents some
range of mathematical
integers. Integral data types may be of different sizes and may or may not be allowed to contain negative values. Integers are commonly represented in a computer as a group of binary digits (bits). The size of the grouping varies so the set of integer sizes available varies between different types of computers. Computer hardware, including
virtual machines, nearly always provide a way to represent a processor
register or memory address as an integer.
integrated development environment (IDE)
A
software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for
software development. An IDE normally consists of at least a
source code editor,
build automation tools, and a
debugger.
integration testing
(sometimes called integration and testing, abbreviated I&T) is the phase in
software testing in which individual software modules are combined and tested as a group. Integration testing is conducted to evaluate the
compliance of a system or component with specified
functional requirements.
It occurs after
unit testing and before
validation testing. Integration testing takes as its input
modules that have been unit tested, groups them in larger aggregates, applies tests defined in an integration
test plan to those aggregates, and delivers as its output the integrated system ready for
system testing.
intellectual property (IP)
A category of legal property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect.
There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others.
The most well-known types are
copyrights,
patents,
trademarks, and
trade secrets.
intelligent agent
In
artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent (IA) refers to an
autonomous entity which acts, directing its activity towards achieving goals (i.e. it is an
agent), upon an
environment using observation through sensors and consequent actuators (i.e. it is intelligent).
Intelligent agents may also
learn or use
knowledge to achieve their goals. They may be very simple or
very complex. A reflex machine, such as a
thermostat, is considered an example of an intelligent agent.
interface
A shared boundary across which two or more separate components of a
computer system exchange information. The exchange can be between
software,
computer hardware,
peripheral devices,
humans, and combinations of these.
Some computer hardware devices, such as a
touchscreen, can both send and receive data through the interface, while others such as a mouse or microphone may only provide an interface to send data to a given system.
internal documentation
Computer
software is said to have Internal Documentation if the notes on how and why various parts of code operate is included within the
source code as comments. It is often combined with meaningful
variable names with the intention of providing potential future programmers a means of understanding the workings of the code. This contrasts with external
documentation, where programmers keep their notes and explanations in a separate document.
internet
The global system of interconnected
computer networks that use the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies.
internet bot
A
software application that runs automated tasks (scripts) over the
Internet.
Typically, bots perform tasks that are both simple and structurally repetitive, at a much higher rate than would be possible for a human alone. The largest use of bots is in
web spidering (web crawler), in which an automated script fetches, analyzes and files information from web servers at many times the speed of a
human.
interpreter
A
computer program that directly
executes instructions written in a
programming or
scripting language, without requiring them to have been previously
compiled into a
machine language program.
invariant
One can encounter invariants that can be relied upon to be true during the execution of a program, or during some portion of it. It is a
logical assertion that is always held to be true during a certain phase of execution. For example, a
loop invariant is a condition that is true at the beginning and the end of every execution of a loop.
iteration
Is the repetition of a process in order to generate an outcome. The sequence will approach some end point or end value. Each repetition of the process is a single iteration, and the outcome of each iteration is then the starting point of the next iteration. In
mathematics and
computer science, iteration (along with the related technique of
recursion) is a standard element of
algorithms.
J
Java
A
general-purpose programming language that is
class-based,
object-oriented(although not a pure OO language
), and designed to have as few implementation
dependencies as possible. It is intended to let
application developers "
write once, run anywhere" (WORA),
meaning that
compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need for recompilation.
K
kernel
The first section of an
operating system to load into
memory. As the center of the operating system, the kernel needs to be small, efficient, and loaded into a protected area in the memory so that it cannot be overwritten. It may be responsible for such essential tasks as disk drive management, file management, memory management, process management, etc.
L
library (computing)
A collection of
non-volatile resources used by
computer programs, often for
software development. These may include configuration data, documentation, help data, message templates,
pre-written code and
subroutines,
classes,
values, or
type specifications.
linear search
A method for finding an element within a
list. It sequentially checks each element of the list until a match is found or the whole list has been searched.
linked list
A linear collection of data elements, whose order is not given by their physical placement in memory. Instead, each element
points to the next. It is a
data structure consisting of a collection of
nodes which together represent a
sequence.
linker
or link editor, is a computer
utility program that takes one or more
object files generated by a
compiler or an
assembler and combines them into a single
executable file,
library file, or another 'object' file. A simpler version that writes its output directly to memory is called the loader, though
loading is typically considered a separate process.
list
An
abstract data type that represents a countable number of ordered
values, where the same value may occur more than once. An instance of a list is a computer representation of the mathematical concept of a finite
sequence; the (potentially) infinite analog of a list is a
stream.
: §3.5 Lists are a basic example of
containers, as they contain other values. If the same value occurs multiple times, each occurrence is considered a distinct item.
loader
The part of an
operating system that is responsible for loading
programs and
libraries. It is one of the essential stages in the process of starting a program, as it places programs into memory and prepares them for execution. Loading a program involves reading the contents of the
executable file containing the program instructions into memory, and then carrying out other required preparatory tasks to prepare the executable for running. Once loading is complete, the operating system starts the program by passing control to the loaded program code.
logic error
In
computer programming, a
bug in a program that causes it to operate incorrectly, but not to terminate abnormally (or
crash). A logic error produces unintended or undesired output or other behaviour, although it may not immediately be recognized as such.
logic programming
A type of
programming paradigm which is largely based on
formal logic. Any program written in a logic
programming language is a set of sentences in logical form, expressing facts and rules about some problem domain. Major logic programming language families include
Prolog,
answer set programming (ASP), and
Datalog.
M
machine learning (ML)
The scientific study of
algorithms and
statistical models that
computer systems use to perform a specific task without using explicit instructions, relying on patterns and
inference instead. It is seen as a subset of
artificial intelligence. Machine learning algorithms build a
mathematical model based on sample data, known as "
training data", in order to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to perform the task.
machine vision (MV)
The technology and methods used to provide imaging-based automatic inspection and analysis for such applications as automatic inspection,
process control, and robot guidance, usually in industry. Machine vision refers to many technologies, software and hardware products, integrated systems, actions, methods and expertise. Machine vision as a
systems engineering discipline can be considered distinct from
computer vision, a form of
computer science. It attempts to integrate existing technologies in new ways and apply them to solve real world problems. The term is the prevalent one for these functions in industrial automation environments but is also used for these functions in other environments such as security and vehicle guidance.
mathematical logic
A subfield of
mathematics exploring the applications of formal
logic to mathematics. It bears close connections to
metamathematics, the
foundations of mathematics, and
theoretical computer science.
The unifying themes in mathematical logic include the study of the expressive power of
formal systems and the
deductive power of formal
proof systems.
matrix
In
mathematics, a matrix, (plural matrices), is a
rectangular array (see
irregular matrix) of
numbers,
symbols, or
expressions, arranged in
rows and
columns.
memory
Computer data storage, often called storage, is a technology consisting of
computer components and
recording media that are used to retain digital
data. It is a core function and fundamental component of computers.
: 15–16
merge sort
An efficient, general-purpose,
comparison-based sorting algorithm. Most implementations produce a
stable sort, which means that the order of equal elements is the same in the input and output. Merge sort is a
divide and conquer algorithm that was invented by
John von Neumann in 1945.
A detailed description and analysis of bottom-up mergesort appeared in a report by
Goldstine and
von Neumann as early as 1948.
method
In
object-oriented programming (OOP), a
procedure associated with a
message and an
object. An object consists of data and behavior. The data and behavior comprise an interface, which specifies how the object may be utilized by any of various consumers
of the object.
methodology
In
software engineering, a software development process is the process of dividing
software development work into distinct phases to improve
design,
product management, and
project management. It is also known as a software development life cycle (SDLC). The methodology may include the pre-definition of specific
deliverables and artifacts that are created and completed by a project team to develop or maintain an application.
modem
A
hardware device that converts data into a format suitable for a
transmission medium so that it can be transmitted from one computer to another (historically along telephone wires). A modem
modulates one or more
carrier wave signals to encode
digital information for transmission and
demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a
signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded reliably to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used with almost any means of transmitting analog signals from
light-emitting diodes to
radio. A common type of modem is one that turns the
digital data of a
computer into modulated
electrical signal for transmission over
telephone lines and demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.
N
natural language processing (NLP)
A subfield of
linguistics,
computer science,
information engineering, and
artificial intelligence concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages, in particular how to program computers to process and analyze large amounts of
natural language data. Challenges in natural language processing frequently involve
speech recognition,
natural language understanding, and
natural language generation.
node
Is a basic unit of a
data structure, such as a
linked list or
tree data structure. Nodes contain
data and also may link to other nodes. Links between nodes are often implemented by
pointers.
number theory
A branch of
pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the
integers and
integer-valued functions.
numerical analysis
The study of
algorithms that use numerical
approximation (as opposed to
symbolic manipulations) for the problems of
mathematical analysis (as distinguished from
discrete mathematics).
numerical method
In
numerical analysis, a numerical method is a mathematical tool designed to solve numerical problems. The implementation of a numerical method with an appropriate convergence check in a programming language is called a numerical algorithm.
O
object
An object can be a
variable, a
data structure, a
function, or a
method, and as such, is a
value in
memory referenced by an
identifier. In the
class-based object-oriented programming paradigm, object refers to a particular
instance of a
class, where the object can be a combination of variables, functions, and data structures. In
relational database management, an object can be a table or column, or an association between data and a database entity (such as relating a person's age to a specific person).
object code
The product of a
compiler.
In a general sense object code is a sequence of
statements or instructions in a computer language,
usually a
machine code language (i.e.,
binary) or an intermediate language such as
register transfer language (RTL). The term indicates that the code is the
goal or result of the compiling process, with some early sources referring to source code as a "subject program."
object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD)
A technical approach for analyzing and designing an application, system, or business by applying
object-oriented programming, as well as using visual modeling throughout the software development process to guide stakeholder communication and product quality.
object-oriented programming (OOP)
A
programming paradigm based on the concept of "
objects", which can contain
data, in the form of
fields (often known as attributes or properties), and code, in the form of
procedures (often known as methods). A feature of objects is an object's procedures that can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated (objects have a notion of "
this" or "self"). In OOP, computer programs are designed by making them out of objects that interact with one another.
OOP languages are diverse, but the most popular ones are
class-based, meaning that objects are
instances of
classes, which also determine their
types.
open-source software (OSS)
A type of
computer software in which
source code is released under a
license in which the
copyright holder grants users the rights to study, change, and
distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose.
Open-source software may be developed in a
collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of
open collaboration.
operating system (OS)
System software that manages
computer hardware,
software resources, and provides common
services for
computer programs.
optical fiber
A flexible,
transparent fiber made by
drawing glass (
silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a
human hair.
Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in
fiber-optic communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher
bandwidths (data rates) than electrical cables. Fibers are used instead of
metal wires because signals travel along them with less
loss; in addition, fibers are immune to
electromagnetic interference, a problem from which metal wires suffer.
P
pair programming
An
agile software development technique in which two
programmers work together at one workstation. One, the driver, writes
code while the other, the observer or navigator,
reviews each line of code as it is typed in. The two programmers switch roles frequently.
parallel computing
A type of
computation in which many calculations or the execution of
processes are carried out simultaneously.
Large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which can then be solved at the same time. There are several different forms of parallel computing:
bit-level,
instruction-level,
data, and
task parallelism.
parameter
In
computer programming, a special kind of
variable, used in a
subroutine to refer to one of the pieces of data provided as input to the subroutine.
These pieces of data are the values
of the arguments (often called actual arguments or actual parameters) with which the subroutine is going to be called/invoked. An ordered list of parameters is usually included in the
definition of a subroutine, so that, each time the subroutine is called, its arguments for that call are evaluated, and the resulting values can be assigned to the corresponding parameters.
peripheral
Any auxiliary or ancillary device connected to or integrated within a computer system and used to send information to or retrieve information from the computer. An input device sends data or instructions to the computer; an output device provides output from the computer to the user; and an input/output device performs both functions.
pointer
Is an
object in many
programming languages that stores a
memory address. This can be that of another value located in
computer memory, or in some cases, that of
memory-mapped computer hardware. A pointer references a location in memory, and obtaining the value stored at that location is known as
dereferencing the pointer. As an analogy, a page number in a book's index could be considered a pointer to the corresponding page; dereferencing such a pointer would be done by flipping to the page with the given page number and reading the text found on that page. The actual format and content of a pointer variable is dependent on the underlying
computer architecture.
postcondition
In
computer programming, a condition or
predicate that must always be true just after the execution of some section of code or after an operation in a
formal specification. Postconditions are sometimes tested using
assertions within the code itself. Often, postconditions are simply included in the documentation of the affected section of code.
precondition
In
computer programming, a condition or
predicate that must always be true just prior to the execution of some section of
code or before an operation in a
formal specification. If a precondition is violated, the effect of the section of
code becomes undefined and thus may or may not carry out its intended work.
Security problems can arise due to incorrect preconditions.
primary storage
(Also known as main memory, internal memory or prime memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.
primitive data type
priority queue
An
abstract data type which is like a regular
queue or
stack data structure, but where additionally each element has a "priority" associated with it. In a priority queue, an element with high priority is served before an element with low priority. In some implementations, if two elements have the same priority, they are served according to the order in which they were enqueued, while in other implementations, ordering of elements with the same priority is undefined.
procedural programming
procedure
In
computer programming, a subroutine is a sequence of program instructions that performs a specific task, packaged as a unit. This unit can then be used in programs wherever that particular
task should be performed. Subroutines may be defined within programs, or separately in
libraries that can be used by many programs. In different programming languages, a subroutine may be called a routine, subprogram, function,
method, or procedure. Technically, these terms all have different definitions. The generic,
umbrella term callable unit is sometimes used.
program lifecycle phase
Program lifecycle phases are the stages a
computer program undergoes, from initial creation to deployment and
execution. The phases are edit time, compile time, link time, distribution time, installation time, load time, and run time.
programming language
A
formal language, which comprises a
set of instructions that produce various kinds of
output. Programming languages are used in
computer programming to implement
algorithms.
programming language implementation
Is a system for executing
computer programs. There are two general approaches to programming language implementation:
interpretation and
compilation.
programming language theory
(PLT) is a branch of
computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of
programming languages and of their individual
features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting
mathematics,
software engineering,
linguistics and even
cognitive science. It has become a well-recognized branch of computer science, and an active research area, with results published in numerous
journals dedicated to PLT, as well as in general computer science and engineering publications.
Prolog
Is a
logic programming language associated with
artificial intelligence and
computational linguistics.
Prolog has its roots in
first-order logic, a
formal logic, and unlike many other
programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily as a
declarative programming language: the program logic is expressed in terms of
relations, represented as facts and
rules. A
computation is initiated by running a query over these relations.
Python
Is an
interpreted,
high-level and
general-purpose programming language. Created by
Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991, Python's design philosophy emphasizes
code readability with its notable use of
significant whitespace. Its
language constructs and
object-oriented approach aim to help
programmers write clear, logical code for small and large-scale projects.
Q
quantum computing
The use of
quantum-mechanical phenomena such as
superposition and
entanglement to perform
computation. A quantum computer is used to perform such computation, which can be implemented theoretically or physically.
: I-5
queue
A
collection in which the entities in the collection are kept in order and the principal (or only) operations on the collection are the addition of entities to the rear terminal position, known as enqueue, and removal of entities from the front terminal position, known as dequeue.
quicksort
An
efficient sorting algorithm which serves as a systematic method for placing the elements of a
random access file or an
array in order.
R
R programming language
R is a
programming language and
free software environment for
statistical computing and graphics supported by the R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
The R language is widely used among
statisticians and
data miners for developing
statistical software and
data analysis.
radix
In
digital numeral systems, the number of unique
digits, including the digit zero, used to represent numbers in a
positional numeral system. For example, in the decimal/denary system (the most common system in use today) the radix (base number) is ten, because it uses the ten digits from 0 through 9, and all other numbers are uniquely specified by positional combinations of these ten base digits; in the
binary system that is the standard in
computing, the radix is two, because it uses only two digits, 0 and 1, to uniquely specify each number.
record
A record (also called a structure,
struct, or compound data) is a basic
data structure. Records in a
database or
spreadsheet are usually called "
rows".
recursion
Occurs when a thing is defined in terms of itself or of its type. Recursion is used in a variety of disciplines ranging from
linguistics to
logic. The most common application of recursion is in
mathematics and
computer science, where a
function being defined is applied within its own definition. While this apparently defines an infinite number of instances (function values), it is often done in such a way that no infinite loop or infinite chain of references can occur.
reference
Is a value that enables a program to indirectly access a particular
datum, such as a
variable's value or a
record, in the
computer's
memory or in some other
storage device. The reference is said to refer to the datum, and accessing the datum is called
dereferencing the reference.
reference counting
A programming technique of storing the number of
references,
pointers, or
handles to a resource, such as an object, a block of memory, disk space, and others. In
garbage collection algorithms, reference counts may be used to deallocate objects which are no longer needed.
relational database
Is a digital
database based on the
relational model of data, as proposed by
E. F. Codd in 1970.
A software system used to maintain relational databases is a
relational database management system (RDBMS). Many relational database systems have an option of using the
SQL (Structured Query Language) for querying and maintaining the database.
reliability engineering
A sub-discipline of
systems engineering that emphasizes dependability in the
lifecycle management of a product. Reliability describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time.
Reliability is closely related to
availability, which is typically described as the ability of a component or system to function at a specified moment or interval of time.
regression testing
(rarely non-regression testing
) is re-running
functional and
non-functional tests to ensure that previously developed and tested software still performs after a change.
If not, that would be called a
regression. Changes that may require regression testing include
bug fixes, software enhancements,
configuration changes, and even substitution of
electronic components.
As regression test suites tend to grow with each found defect, test automation is frequently involved. Sometimes a
change impact analysis is performed to determine an appropriate subset of tests (non-regression analysis
).
requirements analysis
In
systems engineering and
software engineering, requirements analysis focuses on the tasks that determine the needs or conditions to meet the new or altered product or project, taking account of the possibly conflicting
requirements of the various
stakeholders, analyzing, documenting, validating and managing software or system requirements.
robotics
An interdisciplinary branch of
engineering and
science that includes
mechanical engineering,
electronic engineering,
information engineering,
computer science, and others. Robotics involves design, construction, operation, and use of
robots, as well as
computer systems for their perception, control,
sensory feedback, and
information processing. The goal of robotics is to design intelligent machines that can help and assist humans in their day-to-day lives and keep everyone safe.
round-off error
The difference between the result produced by a given
algorithm using exact arithmetic and the result produced by the same algorithm using finite-precision, rounded arithmetic.
Rounding errors are due to inexactness in the representation of real numbers and the arithmetic operations done with them. This is a form of
quantization error.
When using approximation
equations or algorithms, especially when using finitely many digits to represent real numbers (which in theory have infinitely many digits), one of the goals of
numerical analysis is to
estimate computation errors.
Computation errors, also called
numerical errors, include both
truncation errors and roundoff errors.
router
A
networking device that forwards
data packets between
computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the
Internet. Data sent through the internet, such as a
web page or
email, is in the form of data packets. A packet is typically
forwarded from one router to another router through the networks that constitute an
internetwork (e.g. the Internet) until it reaches its destination
node.
routing table
In
computer networking a routing table, or routing information base (RIB), is a
data table stored in a
router or a
network host that lists the routes to particular network destinations, and in some cases,
metrics (distances) associated with those routes. The routing table contains information about the
topology of the network immediately around it.
run time
Runtime, run time, or execution time is the final phase of a
computer program's
life cycle, in which the code is being
executed on the computer's
central processing unit (CPU) as
machine code. In other words, "runtime" is the running phase of a program.
run time error
A
runtime error is detected after or during the execution (running state) of a program, whereas a
compile-time error is detected by the
compiler before the program is ever executed.
Type checking,
register allocation,
code generation, and code optimization are typically done at compile time, but may be done at runtime depending on the particular language and compiler. Many other runtime errors exist and are handled differently by different
programming languages, such as
division by zero errors, domain errors,
array subscript out of bounds errors,
arithmetic underflow errors, several types of underflow and
overflow errors, and many other runtime errors generally considered as software bugs which may or may not be caught and handled by any particular computer language.
S
search algorithm
Any
algorithm which solves the
search problem, namely, to retrieve information stored within some data structure, or calculated in the
search space of a problem
domain, either with
discrete or continuous values.
secondary storage
Also known as external memory or auxiliary storage, differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its
input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfer the desired data to primary storage. Secondary storage is non-volatile (retaining data when power is shut off). Modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage because secondary storage is less expensive.
selection sort
Is an
in-place comparison sorting algorithm. It has an
O(n2)
time complexity, which makes it inefficient on large lists, and generally performs worse than the similar
insertion sort. Selection sort is noted for its simplicity and has performance advantages over more complicated algorithms in certain situations, particularly where
auxiliary memory is limited.
semantics
In
programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of
programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of
syntactically valid
strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically invalid strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will be executed on a certain
platform, hence creating a
model of computation.
sequence
In
mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and
order does matter. Like a
set, it contains
members (also called elements, or terms). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is called the length of the sequence. Unlike a set, the same elements can appear multiple times at different positions in a sequence, and order does matter. Formally, a sequence can be defined as a
function whose domain is either the set of the
natural numbers (for infinite sequences) or the set of the first n natural numbers (for a sequence of finite length n).
The position of an element in a sequence is its rank or index; it is the natural number for which the element is the image. The first element has index 0 or 1, depending on the context or a specific convention. When a symbol is used to denote a sequence, the nth element of the sequence is denoted by this symbol with n as subscript; for example, the nth element of the
Fibonacci sequence F is generally denoted Fn.
For example, (M, A, R, Y) is a sequence of letters with the letter 'M' first and 'Y' last. This sequence differs from (A, R, M, Y). Also, the sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8), which contains the number 1 at two different positions, is a valid sequence. Sequences can be
finite, as in these examples, or
infinite, such as the sequence of all
even positive integers (2, 4, 6, ...). In
computing and
computer science, finite sequences are sometimes called
strings,
words or
lists, the different names commonly corresponding to different ways to represent them in
computer memory; infinite sequences are called
streams. The empty sequence ( ) is included in most notions of sequence, but may be excluded depending on the context.
serializability
In
concurrency control of
databases,
transaction processing (transaction management), and various
transactional applications (e.g.,
transactional memory and
software transactional memory), both centralized and
distributed, a
transaction schedule is serializable if its outcome (e.g., the resulting database state) is equal to the outcome of its transactions executed serially, i.e. without overlapping in time. Transactions are normally executed concurrently (they overlap), since this is the most efficient way. Serializability is the major correctness criterion for concurrent transactions' executions. It is considered the highest level of
isolation between
transactions, and plays an essential role in
concurrency control. As such it is supported in all general purpose database systems.
Strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL) is a popular serializability mechanism utilized in most of the database systems (in various variants) since their early days in the 1970s.
serialization
Is the process of translating
data structures or
object state into a format that can be stored (for example, in a
file or memory
buffer) or transmitted (for example, across a
network connection link) and reconstructed later (possibly in a different computer environment).
When the resulting series of bits is reread according to the serialization format, it can be used to create a semantically identical clone of the original object. For many complex objects, such as those that make extensive use of
references, this process is not straightforward. Serialization of object-oriented
objects does not include any of their associated
methods with which they were previously linked.
This process of serializing an object is also called
marshalling an object in some situations.
The opposite operation, extracting a data structure from a series of bytes, is deserialization, (also called unserialization or
unmarshalling).
service level agreement
(SLA), is a commitment between a service provider and a client. Particular aspects of the service – quality, availability, responsibilities – are agreed between the service provider and the service user.
The most common component of an SLA is that the services should be provided to the customer as agreed upon in the contract. As an example,
Internet service providers and
telcos will commonly include service level agreements within the terms of their contracts with customers to define the level(s) of service being sold in plain language terms. In this case the SLA will typically have a technical definition in
mean time between failures (MTBF),
mean time to repair or
mean time to recovery (MTTR); identifying which party is responsible for reporting faults or paying fees; responsibility for various data rates;
throughput;
jitter; or similar measurable details.
set
Is an
abstract data type that can store unique values, without any particular
order. It is a computer implementation of the
mathematical concept of a
finite set. Unlike most other
collection types, rather than retrieving a specific element from a set, one typically tests a value for membership in a set.
singleton variable
A variable that is referenced only once. May be used as a dummy argument in a function call, or when its address is assigned to another variable which subsequently accesses its allocated storage. Singleton variables sometimes occur because a mistake has been made – such as assigning a value to a variable and forgetting to use it later, or mistyping one instance of the variable name. Some compilers and lint-like tools flag occurrences of singleton variables.
soft computing
software
Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of
data or
computer instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to
physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In
computer science and
software engineering, computer software is all
information processed by
computer systems,
programs and
data. Computer software includes
computer programs,
libraries and related non-executable
data, such as
online documentation or
digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.
software agent
Is a computer program that acts for a user or other program in a relationship of agency, which derives from the Latin agere (to do): an agreement to act on one's behalf. Such "action on behalf of" implies the
authority to decide which, if any, action is appropriate.
Agents are colloquially known as
bots, from
robot. They may be embodied, as when execution is paired with a robot body, or as software such as a chatbot
executing on a phone (e.g.
Siri) or other computing device. Software agents may be autonomous or work together with other agents or people. Software agents interacting with people (e.g.
chatbots,
human-robot interaction environments) may possess human-like qualities such as
natural language understanding and speech, personality or embody humanoid form (see
Asimo).
software construction
Is a
software engineering discipline. It is the detailed creation of working meaningful
software through a combination of
coding,
verification,
unit testing,
integration testing, and
debugging. It is linked to all the other
software engineering disciplines, most strongly to
software design and
software testing.
software deployment
Is all of the activities that make a
software system available for use.
software design
Is the process by which an
agent creates a specification of a
software artifact, intended to accomplish
goals, using a set of primitive components and subject to
constraints.
Software design may refer to either "all the activity involved in conceptualizing, framing, implementing, commissioning, and ultimately modifying complex systems" or "the activity following
requirements specification and before
programming, as ... a stylized software engineering process."
software development
Is the process of conceiving, specifying, designing,
programming,
documenting,
testing, and
bug fixing involved in creating and maintaining
applications,
frameworks, or other software components. Software development is a process of writing and
maintaining the
source code, but in a broader sense, it includes all that is involved between the conception of the desired software through to the final manifestation of the software, sometimes in a planned and
structured process.
Therefore, software development may include research, new development, prototyping, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products.
software development process
In
software engineering, a software development process is the process of dividing
software development work into distinct phases to improve
design,
product management, and
project management. It is also known as a software development life cycle (SDLC). The methodology may include the pre-definition of specific
deliverables and artifacts that are created and completed by a project team to develop or maintain an application.
Most modern development processes can be vaguely described as
agile. Other methodologies include
waterfall,
prototyping,
iterative and incremental development,
spiral development,
rapid application development, and
extreme programming.
software engineering
Is the systematic application of
engineering approaches to the
development of
software.
Software engineering is a
computing discipline.
software maintenance
In
software engineering is the modification of a software product after delivery to correct faults, to improve performance or other attributes.
software prototyping
Is the activity of creating
prototypes of software applications, i.e., incomplete versions of the
software program being developed. It is an activity that can occur in
software development and is comparable to
prototyping as known from other fields, such as
mechanical engineering or
manufacturing. A prototype typically simulates only a few aspects of, and may be completely different from, the final product.
software requirements specification
(SRS), is a description of a
software system to be
developed. The software requirements specification lays out
functional and
non-functional requirements, and it may include a set of
use cases that describe user interactions that the software must provide to the user for perfect interaction.
software testing
Is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the
quality of the
software product or service under test.
Software testing can also provide an objective, independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software implementation. Test techniques include the process of executing a program or application with the intent of finding
software bugs (errors or other defects), and verifying that the software product is fit for use.
sorting algorithm
Is an
algorithm that puts elements of a
list in a certain
order. The most frequently used orders are
numerical order and
lexicographical order. Efficient
sorting is important for optimizing the
efficiency of other algorithms (such as
search and
merge algorithms) that require input data to be in sorted lists. Sorting is also often useful for
canonicalizing data and for producing human-readable output. More formally, the output of any sorting algorithm must satisfy two conditions:
- The output is in nondecreasing order (each element is no smaller than the previous element according to the desired total order);
- The output is a permutation (a reordering, yet retaining all of the original elements) of the input.
Further, the input data is often stored in an
array, which allows
random access, rather than a list, which only allows
sequential access; though many algorithms can be applied to either type of data after suitable modification.
source code
In
computing, source code is any collection of code, with or without
comments, written using
a human-readable
programming language, usually as
plain text. The source code of a program is specially designed to facilitate the work of computer
programmers, who specify the actions to be performed by a computer mostly by writing source code. The source code is often transformed by an
assembler or
compiler into
binary machine code that can be executed by the computer. The machine code might then be stored for
execution at a later time. Alternatively, source code may be
interpreted and thus immediately executed.
spiral model
Is a risk-driven
software development process model. Based on the unique risk patterns of a given project, the spiral model guides a team to adopt elements of one or more process models, such as
incremental,
waterfall, or
evolutionary prototyping.
stack
Is an
abstract data type that serves as a
collection of elements, with two main principal operations:
- push, which adds an element to the collection, and
- pop, which removes the most recently added element that was not yet removed.
The order in which elements come off a stack gives rise to its alternative name, LIFO (last in, first out). Additionally, a
peek operation may give access to the top without modifying the stack.
The name "stack" for this type of structure comes from the analogy to a set of physical items stacked on top of each other. This structure makes it easy to take an item off the top of the stack, while getting to an item deeper in the stack may require taking off multiple other items first.
state
In
information technology and computer science, a system is described as stateful if it is designed to remember preceding events or user interactions;
the remembered information is called the state of the system.
statement
In
computer programming, a statement is a
syntactic unit of an
imperative programming language that expresses some action to be carried out.
A
program written in such a language is formed by a sequence of one or more statements. A statement may have internal components (e.g.,
expressions).
storage
Computer data storage is a technology consisting of
computer components and
recording media that are used to retain digital
data. It is a core function and fundamental component of computers.
: 15–16
stream
Is a
sequence of
data elements made available over time. A stream can be thought of as items on a
conveyor belt being processed one at a time rather than in large batches.
string
In
computer programming, a string is traditionally a
sequence of
characters, either as a
literal constant or as some kind of variable. The latter may allow its elements to be mutated and the length changed, or it may be fixed (after creation). A string is generally considered as a
data type and is often implemented as an
array data structure of
bytes (or
words) that stores a sequence of elements, typically characters, using some
character encoding. String may also denote more general
arrays or other sequence (or
list) data types and structures.
structured storage
A NoSQL (originally referring to "non-
SQL" or "non-relational")
database provides a mechanism for
storage and
retrieval of data that is modeled in means other than the tabular relations used in
relational databases. Such databases have existed since the late 1960s, but the name "NoSQL" was only coined in the early 21st century,
triggered by the needs of
Web 2.0 companies.
NoSQL databases are increasingly used in
big data and
real-time web applications.
NoSQL systems are also sometimes called "Not only SQL" to emphasize that they may support
SQL-like query languages or sit alongside SQL databases in
polyglot-persistent architectures.
subroutine
In
computer programming, a subroutine is a sequence of program instructions that performs a specific task, packaged as a unit. This unit can then be used in programs wherever that particular
task should be performed. Subroutines may be defined within programs, or separately in
libraries that can be used by many programs. In different programming languages, a subroutine may be called a routine, subprogram, function,
method, or procedure. Technically, these terms all have different definitions. The generic,
umbrella term callable unit is sometimes used.
symbolic computation
In
mathematics and
computer science,
computer algebra, also called symbolic computation or algebraic computation, is a scientific area that refers to the study and development of
algorithms and
software for manipulating
mathematical expressions and other
mathematical objects. Although computer algebra could be considered a subfield of
scientific computing, they are generally considered as distinct fields because scientific computing is usually based on
numerical computation with approximate
floating point numbers, while symbolic computation emphasizes exact computation with expressions containing
variables that have no given value and are manipulated as symbols.
syntax
The syntax of a
computer language is the set of rules that defines the combinations of symbols that are considered to be correctly structured
statements or
expressions in that language. This applies both to
programming languages, where the document represents
source code, and to
markup languages, where the document represents data.
syntax error
Is an error in the
syntax of a sequence of characters or
tokens that is intended to be written in
compile-time. A program will not compile until all syntax errors are corrected. For
interpreted languages, however, a syntax error may be detected during
program execution, and an interpreter's error messages might not differentiate syntax errors from errors of other kinds. There is some disagreement as to just what errors are "syntax errors". For example, some would say that the use of an uninitialized variable's value in Java code is a syntax error, but many others would disagree
and would classify this as a
(static) semantic error.
system console
The system console, computer console, root console,
operator's console, or simply console is the text entry and display device for system administration messages, particularly those from the
BIOS or
boot loader, the
kernel, from the
init system and from the
system logger. It is a physical device consisting of a keyboard and a screen, and traditionally is a
text terminal, but may also be a
graphical terminal. System consoles are generalized to
computer terminals, which are abstracted respectively by
virtual consoles and
terminal emulators. Today communication with system consoles is generally done abstractly, via the
standard streams (
stdin,
stdout, and
stderr), but there may be system-specific interfaces, for example those used by the system kernel.
T
technical documentation
In engineering, any type of
documentation that describes handling, functionality, and architecture of a technical product or a product under
development or use.
The intended recipient for product technical documentation is both the (proficient)
end user as well as the administrator/service or maintenance technician. In contrast to a mere "cookbook"
manual, technical documentation aims at providing enough information for a user to understand inner and outer dependencies of the product at hand.
third-generation programming language
A third-generation programming language (3GL) is a
high-level computer
programming language that tends to be more machine-independent and programmer-friendly than the
machine code of the
first-generation and
assembly languages of the
second-generation, while having a less specific focus to the
fourth and
fifth generations.
Examples of common and historical third-generation programming languages are
ALGOL,
BASIC,
C,
COBOL,
Fortran,
Java, and
Pascal.
tree
A widely used
abstract data type (ADT) that simulates a hierarchical
tree structure, with a root value and subtrees of children with a
parent node, represented as a set of linked
nodes.
type theory
In mathematics, logic, and computer science, a type theory is any of a class of
formal systems, some of which can serve as alternatives to
set theory as a
foundation for all mathematics. In type theory, every "term" has a "type" and operations are restricted to terms of a certain type.
U
upload
In
computer networks, to send
data to a remote system such as a
server or another client so that the remote system can store a copy.
Contrast
download.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
A reference to a
web resource that specifies its location on a
computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI),
although many people use the two terms interchangeably.
URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (
http), but are also used for file transfer (
ftp), email (
mailto), database access (
JDBC), and many other applications.
user
Is a person who utilizes a
computer or
network service. Users of computer systems and software products generally lack the technical expertise required to fully understand how they work.
Power users use advanced features of programs, though they are not necessarily capable of
computer programming and
system administration.
user agent
Software (a
software agent) that acts on behalf of a
user, such as a
web browser that "retrieves, renders and facilitates end user interaction with Web content".
An email reader is a
mail user agent.
user interface (UI)
The space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine from the human end, whilst the machine simultaneously feeds back information that aids the operators'
decision-making process. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer
operating systems, hand
tools,
heavy machinery operator controls, and
process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as
ergonomics and
psychology.
user interface design
The design of
user interfaces for machines and
software, such as computers, home appliances, mobile devices, and other electronic devices, with the focus on maximizing
usability and the
user experience. The goal of user interface design is to make the user's interaction as simple and efficient as possible, in terms of accomplishing user goals (
user-centered design).
V
variable
In
computer programming, a variable, or scalar, is a storage location (identified by a
memory address) paired with an associated symbolic name (an
identifier), which contains some known or unknown quantity of information referred to as a
value. The variable name is the usual way to
reference the stored value, in addition to referring to the variable itself, depending on the context. This separation of name and content allows the name to be used independently of the exact information it represents. The identifier in computer
source code can be
bound to a value during
run time, and the value of the variable may therefore change during the course of
program execution.
virtual machine (VM)
An
emulation of a computer system. Virtual machines are based on
computer architectures and attempt to provide the same functionality as a physical computer. Their implementations may involve specialized hardware, software, or a combination of both.
V-Model
A
software development process that may be considered an extension of the
waterfall model, and is an example of the more
general V-model. Instead of moving down in a linear way, the process steps are bent upwards after the
coding phase, to form the typical V shape. The V-Model demonstrates the relationships between each phase of the development life cycle and its associated phase of
testing. The horizontal and vertical axes represent time or project completeness (left-to-right) and level of abstraction (coarsest-grain abstraction uppermost), respectively.
W
waterfall model
A breakdown of project activities into linear
sequential phases, where each phase depends on the deliverables of the previous one and corresponds to a specialisation of tasks. The approach is typical for certain areas of
engineering design. In
software development, it tends to be among the less iterative and flexible approaches, as progress flows in largely one direction ("downwards" like a
waterfall) through the phases of conception, initiation,
analysis,
design,
construction,
testing,
deployment and
maintenance.
Waveform Audio File Format
An
audio file format standard, developed by
Microsoft and
IBM, for storing an audio bitstream on
PCs. It is an application of the
Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF)
bitstream format method for storing data in "chunks", and thus is also close to the
8SVX and the
AIFF format used on
Amiga and
Macintosh computers, respectively. It is the main format used on
Microsoft Windows systems for raw and typically uncompressed audio. The usual bitstream encoding is the
linear pulse-code modulation (LPCM) format.
web crawler
An
Internet bot that systematically browses the
World Wide Web, typically for the purpose of
Web indexing (web spidering).
Wi-Fi
A family of wireless networking technologies, based on the
IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for
local area networking of devices and
Internet access. Wi‑Fi is a trademark of the non-profit
Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete
interoperability certification testing.
X
XHTML
Part of the family of
XML markup languages. It mirrors or extends versions of the widely used
HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the language in which
web pages are formulated.
See also
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Notes
- ^ The function may be stored as a reference to a function, such as a function pointer.
- ^ In this article, the term "subroutine" refers to any subroutine-like construct, which have different names and slightly different meanings depending on the programming language being discussed.
- ^ A URL implies the means to access an indicated resource and is denoted by a protocol or an access mechanism, which is not true of every URI. Thus http://www.example.com is a URL, while www.example.com is not.