Glossary of artificial intelligence
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This glossary of artificial intelligence is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to the study of artificial intelligence, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. Related glossaries include Glossary of computer science, Glossary of robotics, and Glossary of machine vision.
A
abductive logic programming (ALP)
A high-level knowledge-representation framework that can be used to solve problems declaratively based on
abductive reasoning. It extends normal
logic programming by allowing some predicates to be incompletely defined, declared as abducible predicates.
abductive reasoning
A form of
logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation. This process, unlike
deductive reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion but does not
positively verify it.
abductive inference,
or retroduction
abstract data type
A
mathematical model for
data types, where a data type is defined by its behavior (
semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations.
abstraction
The process of removing physical, spatial, or temporal details
or
attributes in the study of objects or
systems in order to more closely attend to other details of interest
accelerating change
A perceived increase in the rate of
technological change throughout history, which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change.
action language
A language for specifying
state transition systems, and is commonly used to create
formal models of the effects of actions on the world.
Action languages are commonly used in the
artificial intelligence and
robotics domains, where they describe how actions affect the states of systems over time, and may be used for
automated planning.
action model learning
An area of machine learning concerned with creation and modification of software agent's knowledge about effects and preconditions of the actions that can be executed within its environment. This knowledge is usually represented in logic-based action description language and used as the input for automated planners.
action selection
A way of characterizing the most basic problem of intelligent systems: what to do next. In artificial intelligence and computational cognitive science, "the action selection problem" is typically associated with intelligent agents and animats—artificial systems that exhibit complex behaviour in an agent environment.
activation function
In
artificial neural networks, the activation function of a node defines the output of that node given an input or set of inputs.
adaptive algorithm
An algorithm that changes its behavior at the time it is run, based on a priori defined reward mechanism or criterion.
adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
A kind of
artificial neural network that is based on Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy
inference system. The technique was developed in the early 1990s.
Since it integrates both neural networks and
fuzzy logic principles, it has potential to capture the benefits of both in a single
framework. Its inference system corresponds to a set of fuzzy
IF–THEN rules that have learning capability to approximate nonlinear functions.
Hence, ANFIS is considered to be a universal estimator.
For using the ANFIS in a more efficient and optimal way, one can use the best parameters obtained by genetic algorithm.
admissible heuristic
In
computer science, specifically in
algorithms related to
pathfinding, a
heuristic function is said to be admissible if it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal, i.e. the cost it estimates to reach the goal is not higher than the lowest possible cost from the current point in the path.
affective computing
The study and development of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human
affects. Affective computing is an interdisciplinary field spanning
computer science,
psychology, and
cognitive science.
agent architecture
A
blueprint for
software agents and
intelligent control systems, depicting the arrangement of components. The architectures implemented by
intelligent agents are referred to as
cognitive architectures.
AI accelerator
A class of
microprocessor or computer system
designed as
hardware acceleration for
artificial intelligence applications, especially
artificial neural networks,
machine vision, and
machine learning.
AI-complete
In the field of artificial intelligence, the most difficult problems are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard, implying that the difficulty of these computational problems is equivalent to that of solving the central artificial intelligence problem—making computers as intelligent as people, or
strong AI.
To call a problem AI-complete reflects an attitude that it would not be solved by a simple specific algorithm.
algorithm
An unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning tasks.
algorithmic efficiency
A property of an
algorithm which relates to the number of
computational resources used by the algorithm. An algorithm must be
analyzed to determine its resource usage, and the efficiency of an algorithm can be measured based on usage of different resources. Algorithmic efficiency can be thought of as analogous to engineering
productivity for a repeating or continuous process.
algorithmic probability
In
algorithmic information theory, algorithmic probability, also known as Solomonoff probability, is a mathematical method of assigning a prior
probability to a given observation. It was invented by
Ray Solomonoff in the 1960s.
AlphaGo
A
computer program that plays the
board game Go.
It was developed by
Alphabet Inc.'s
Google DeepMind in London. AlphaGo has several versions including
AlphaGo Zero,
AlphaGo Master,
AlphaGo Lee, etc.
In October 2015, AlphaGo became the first
computer Go program to beat a human
professional Go player without
handicaps on a full-sized 19×19 board.
ambient intelligence (AmI)
Electronic environments that are sensitive and responsive to the presence of people.
analysis of algorithms
The determination of the
computational complexity of algorithms, that is the amount of time, storage and/or other resources necessary to
execute them. Usually, this involves determining a
function that relates the length of an algorithm's input to the number of steps it takes (its
time complexity) or the number of storage locations it uses (its
space complexity).
analytics
The discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data.
answer set programming (ASP)
A form of
declarative programming oriented towards difficult (primarily
NP-hard)
search problems. It is based on the
stable model (answer set) semantics of
logic programming. In ASP, search problems are reduced to computing stable models, and answer set solvers—programs for generating stable models—are used to perform search.
anytime algorithm
An
algorithm that can return a valid solution to a problem even if it is interrupted before it ends.
application programming interface (API)
A set of subroutine definitions,
communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a
computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the
programmer. An API may be for a web-based system,
operating system,
database system, computer hardware, or
software library.
approximate string matching
The technique of finding
strings that match a
pattern approximately (rather than exactly). The problem of approximate string matching is typically divided into two sub-problems: finding approximate
substring matches inside a given string and finding dictionary strings that match the pattern approximately.
approximation error
The discrepancy between an exact value and some approximation to it.
argumentation framework
A way to deal with contentious information and draw conclusions from it. In an abstract argumentation framework,
entry-level information is a set of abstract arguments that, for instance, represent data or a proposition. Conflicts between arguments are represented by a
binary relation on the set of arguments. In concrete terms, you represent an argumentation framework with a
directed graph such that the nodes are the arguments, and the arrows represent the attack relation. There exist some extensions of the Dung's framework, like the logic-based argumentation frameworks
or the value-based argumentation frameworks.
artificial general intelligence (AGI)
artificial immune system (AIS)
A class of computationally intelligent,
rule-based machine learning systems inspired by the principles and processes of the vertebrate
immune system. The algorithms are typically modeled after the immune system's characteristics of
learning and
memory for use in
problem-solving.
artificial intelligence (AI)
Any
intelligence demonstrated by
machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. In
computer science, AI research is defined as the study of "
intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals.
Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other
human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving".
Artificial Intelligence Markup Language
An
XML dialect for creating
natural language software agents.
artificial neural network (ANN)
Artificial neural networks (ANNs), also shortened to neural networks (NNs) or neural nets, are a branch of
machine learning models that are built using principles of neuronal organization discovered by
connectionism in the
biological neural networks constituting animal
brains.
Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI)
An international, nonprofit, scientific society devoted to promote research in, and responsible use of,
artificial intelligence. AAAI also aims to increase public understanding of artificial intelligence (AI), improve the teaching and training of AI practitioners, and provide guidance for research planners and funders concerning the importance and potential of current AI developments and future directions.
asymptotic computational complexity
In
computational complexity theory, asymptotic computational complexity is the usage of
asymptotic analysis for the estimation of computational complexity of
algorithms and
computational problems, commonly associated with the usage of the
big O notation.
attention mechanism
Machine learning-based attention is a mechanism mimicking
cognitive attention. It calculates "soft" weights for each word, more precisely for its embedding, in the
context window. It can do it either in parallel (such as in
transformers) or sequentially (such as
recursive neural networks). "Soft" weights can change during each runtime, in contrast to "hard" weights, which are (pre-)trained and fine-tuned and remain frozen afterwards. Multiple attention heads are used in transformer-based
large language models.
attributional calculus
A logic and representation system defined by
Ryszard S. Michalski. It combines elements of
predicate logic,
propositional calculus, and
multi-valued logic. Attributional calculus provides a formal language for natural induction, an inductive learning process whose results are in forms natural to people.
augmented reality (AR)
An interactive experience of a real-world environment where the objects that reside in the real-world are "augmented" by computer-generated perceptual information, sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including
visual,
auditory,
haptic,
somatosensory, and
olfactory.
automata theory
The study of
abstract machines and
automata, as well as the
computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in
theoretical computer science and
discrete mathematics (a subject of study in both
mathematics and
computer science).
automated machine learning (AutoML)
A field of
machine learning which aims to automatically configure a machine learning system to maximize its performance (e.g, classification accuracy).
automated planning and scheduling
A branch of
artificial intelligence that concerns the realization of
strategies or action sequences, typically for execution by
intelligent agents,
autonomous robots and
unmanned vehicles. Unlike classical
control and
classification problems, the solutions are complex and must be discovered and optimized in multidimensional space. Planning is also related to
decision theory.
automated reasoning
An area of
computer science and
mathematical logic dedicated to understanding different aspects of
reasoning. The study of automated reasoning helps produce
computer programs that allow computers to reason completely, or nearly completely, automatically. Although automated reasoning is considered a sub-field of
artificial intelligence, it also has connections with
theoretical computer science, and even
philosophy.
autonomic computing (AC)
The
self-managing characteristics of
distributed computing resources, adapting to unpredictable changes while hiding intrinsic complexity to operators and users. Initiated by
IBM in 2001, this initiative ultimately aimed to develop computer systems capable of self-management, to overcome the rapidly growing complexity of computing
systems management, and to reduce the barrier that complexity poses to further growth.
autonomous car
A
vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and moving with little or no
human input.
autonomous robot
A
robot that performs
behaviors or tasks with a high degree of
autonomy. Autonomous robotics is usually considered to be a subfield of
artificial intelligence,
robotics, and
information engineering.
B
backpropagation
A method used in
artificial neural networks to calculate a gradient that is needed in the calculation of the
weights to be used in the network.
Backpropagation is shorthand for "the backward propagation of errors", since an error is computed at the output and distributed backwards throughout the network's layers. It is commonly used to train
deep neural networks,
a term referring to neural networks with more than one hidden layer.
backpropagation through time (BPTT)
A gradient-based technique for training certain types of
recurrent neural networks. It can be used to train
Elman networks. The algorithm was independently derived by numerous researchers.
backward chaining
An
inference method described colloquially as working backward from the goal. It is used in
automated theorem provers,
inference engines,
proof assistants, and other
artificial intelligence applications.
bag-of-words model
A simplifying representation used in
natural language processing and
information retrieval (IR). In this model, a text (such as a sentence or a document) is represented as the
bag (multiset) of its words, disregarding grammar and even word order but keeping
multiplicity. The bag-of-words model has also been used for
computer vision.
The bag-of-words model is commonly used in methods of
document classification where the (frequency of) occurrence of each word is used as a
feature for training a
classifier.
bag-of-words model in computer vision
In computer vision, the bag-of-words model (BoW model) can be applied to
image classification, by treating
image features as words. In document classification, a
bag of words is a
sparse vector of occurrence counts of words; that is, a sparse
histogram over the vocabulary. In
computer vision, a bag of visual words is a vector of occurrence counts of a vocabulary of local image features.
batch normalization
A technique for improving the performance and stability of
artificial neural networks. It is a technique to provide any layer in a neural network with inputs that are zero mean/unit variance.
Batch normalization was introduced in a 2015 paper.
It is used to normalize the input layer by adjusting and scaling the activations.
Bayesian programming
A formalism and a methodology for having a technique to specify
probabilistic models and solve problems when less than the necessary information is available.
bees algorithm
A population-based
search algorithm which was developed by Pham, Ghanbarzadeh and et al. in 2005.
It mimics the food foraging behaviour of honey bee colonies. In its basic version the algorithm performs a kind of neighbourhood search combined with global search, and can be used for both
combinatorial optimization and
continuous optimization. The only condition for the application of the bees algorithm is that some measure of distance between the solutions is defined. The effectiveness and specific abilities of the bees algorithm have been proven in a number of studies.
behavior informatics (BI)
The informatics of behaviors so as to obtain behavior intelligence and behavior insights.
behavior tree (BT)
A
mathematical model of
plan execution used in
computer science,
robotics,
control systems and
video games. They describe switchings between a finite set of tasks in a modular fashion. Their strength comes from their ability to create very complex tasks composed of simple tasks, without worrying how the simple tasks are implemented. BTs present some similarities to
hierarchical state machines with the key difference that the main building block of a behavior is a task rather than a state. Its ease of human understanding make BTs less error-prone and very popular in the game developer community. BTs have shown to generalize several other control architectures.
belief–desire–intention software model (BDI)
A software model developed for programming
intelligent agents. Superficially characterized by the implementation of an agent's beliefs, desires and intentions, it actually uses these concepts to solve a particular problem in agent programming. In essence, it provides a mechanism for separating the activity of selecting a plan (from a plan library or an external planner application) from the execution of currently active plans. Consequently, BDI agents are able to balance the time spent on deliberating about plans (choosing what to do) and executing those plans (doing it). A third activity, creating the plans in the first place (planning), is not within the scope of the model, and is left to the system designer and programmer.
bias–variance tradeoff
In
statistics and
machine learning, the bias–variance tradeoff is the property of a set of predictive models whereby models with a lower
bias in
parameter estimation have a higher
variance of the parameter estimates across
samples, and vice versa.
big data
A term used to refer to
data sets that are too large or complex for traditional
data-processing application software to adequately deal with. Data with many cases (rows) offer greater
statistical power, while data with higher complexity (more attributes or columns) may lead to a higher
false discovery rate.
Big O notation
A mathematical notation that describes the
limiting behavior of a
function when the
argument tends towards a particular value or infinity. It is a member of a family of notations invented by
Paul Bachmann,
Edmund Landau,
and others, collectively called Bachmann–Landau notation or asymptotic notation.
binary tree
A
tree data structure in which each node has at most two
children, which are referred to as the left child and the right child. A
recursive definition using just
set theory notions is that a (non-empty) binary tree is a
tuple (L, S, R), where L and R are binary trees or the
empty set and S is a
singleton set.
Some authors allow the binary tree to be the empty set as well.
blackboard system
An
artificial intelligence approach based on the
blackboard architectural model,
where a common knowledge base, the "blackboard", is iteratively updated by a diverse group of specialist knowledge sources, starting with a problem specification and ending with a solution. Each knowledge source updates the blackboard with a partial solution when its internal constraints match the blackboard state. In this way, the specialists work together to solve the problem.
Boltzmann machine
A type of
stochastic recurrent neural network and
Markov random field.
Boltzmann machines can be seen as the
stochastic,
generative counterpart of
Hopfield networks.
Boolean satisfiability problem
The problem of determining if there exists an
interpretation that
satisfies a given
Boolean formula. In other words, it asks whether the variables of a given Boolean formula can be consistently replaced by the values TRUE or FALSE in such a way that the formula evaluates to TRUE. If this is the case, the formula is called satisfiable. On the other hand, if no such assignment exists, the function expressed by the formula is
FALSE for all possible variable assignments and the formula is unsatisfiable. For example, the formula "a AND NOT b" is satisfiable because one can find the values a = TRUE and b = FALSE, which make (a AND NOT b) = TRUE. In contrast, "a AND NOT a" is unsatisfiable.
brain technology
A technology that employs the latest findings in
neuroscience. The term was first introduced by the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in
Zurich, Switzerland, in the context of the
ROBOY project.
Brain Technology can be employed in robots,
know-how management systems and any other application with self-learning capabilities. In particular, Brain Technology applications allow the visualization of the underlying learning architecture often coined as "know-how maps".
branching factor
In
computing,
tree data structures, and
game theory, the number of
children at each
node, the
outdegree. If this value is not uniform, an average branching factor can be calculated.
brute-force search
A very general
problem-solving technique and
algorithmic paradigm that consists of systematically enumerating all possible candidates for the solution and checking whether each candidate satisfies the problem's statement.
C
capsule neural network (CapsNet)
A machine learning system that is a type of
artificial neural network (ANN) that can be used to better model hierarchical relationships. The approach is an attempt to more closely mimic biological neural organization.
case-based reasoning (CBR)
Broadly construed, the process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems.
chatbot
A
computer program or an
artificial intelligence which conducts a
conversation via auditory or textual methods.
cloud robotics
A field of
robotics that attempts to invoke cloud technologies such as
cloud computing,
cloud storage, and other
Internet technologies centred on the benefits of converged infrastructure and shared services for robotics. When connected to the cloud, robots can benefit from the powerful computation, storage, and communication resources of modern
data center in the cloud, which can process and share information from various robots or agent (other machines, smart objects, humans, etc.). Humans can also delegate tasks to robots remotely through
networks. Cloud computing technologies enable robot systems to be endowed with powerful capability whilst reducing costs through cloud technologies. Thus, it is possible to build lightweight, low cost, smarter robots have intelligent "brain" in the cloud. The "brain" consists of
data center,
knowledge base, task planners,
deep learning, information processing, environment models, communication support, etc.
cluster analysis
The task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense) to each other than to those in other groups (clusters). It is a main task of exploratory
data mining, and a common technique for
statistical data analysis, used in many fields, including
machine learning,
pattern recognition,
image analysis,
information retrieval,
bioinformatics,
data compression, and
computer graphics.
Cobweb
An incremental system for hierarchical
conceptual clustering. COBWEB was invented by Professor
Douglas H. Fisher, currently at Vanderbilt University.
COBWEB incrementally organizes observations into a
classification tree. Each node in a classification tree represents a class (concept) and is labeled by a probabilistic concept that summarizes the attribute-value distributions of objects classified under the node. This classification tree can be used to predict missing attributes or the class of a new object.
cognitive architecture
The
Institute of Creative Technologies defines cognitive architecture as: "hypothesis about the fixed structures that provide a mind, whether in natural or artificial systems, and how they work together – in conjunction with knowledge and skills embodied within the architecture – to yield intelligent behavior in a diversity of complex environments."
cognitive computing
In general, the term cognitive computing has been used to refer to new hardware and/or software that
mimics the functioning of the
human brain and helps to improve human decision-making.
In this sense, CC is a new type of computing with the goal of more accurate models of how the human brain/
mind senses,
reasons, and responds to stimulus.
cognitive science
The interdisciplinary scientific study of the
mind and its processes.
combinatorial optimization
In
Operations Research,
applied mathematics and
theoretical computer science, combinatorial optimization is a topic that consists of finding an optimal object from a
finite set of objects.
committee machine
A type of
artificial neural network using a
divide and conquer strategy in which the responses of multiple neural networks (experts) are combined into a single response.
The combined response of the committee machine is supposed to be superior to those of its constituent experts. Compare
ensembles of classifiers.
commonsense knowledge
In
artificial intelligence research, commonsense knowledge consists of facts about the everyday world, such as "Lemons are sour", that all humans are expected to know. The first AI program to address common sense knowledge was
Advice Taker in 1959 by John McCarthy.
commonsense reasoning
A branch of artificial intelligence concerned with simulating the human ability to make presumptions about the type and essence of ordinary situations they encounter every day.
computational chemistry
A branch of
chemistry that uses
computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems.
computational complexity theory
Focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating these classes to each other. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm.
computational creativity
A multidisciplinary endeavour that includes the fields of
artificial intelligence,
cognitive psychology,
philosophy, and
the arts.
computational cybernetics
The integration of
cybernetics and
computational intelligence techniques.
computational humor
A branch of
computational linguistics and
artificial intelligence which uses
computers in
humor research.
computational intelligence (CI)
Usually refers to the ability of a
computer to learn a specific task from data or experimental observation.
computational learning theory
In
computer science, computational learning theory (or just learning theory) is a subfield of
artificial intelligence devoted to studying the design and analysis of
machine learning algorithms.
computational linguistics
An
interdisciplinary field concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of
natural language from a computational perspective, as well as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic questions.
computational mathematics
The mathematical research in areas of science where
computing plays an essential role.
computational neuroscience
A branch of
neuroscience which employs mathematical models, theoretical analysis and abstractions of the brain to understand the principles that govern the
development,
structure,
physiology, and
cognitive abilities of the
nervous system.
computational number theory
The study of
algorithms for performing
number theoretic computations.
computational problem
In
theoretical computer science, a computational problem is a
mathematical object representing a collection of questions that
computers might be able to solve.
computational statistics
The interface between
statistics and
computer science.
computer-automated design (CAutoD)
Design automation usually refers to
electronic design automation, or
Design Automation which is a
Product Configurator. Extending
Computer-Aided Design (CAD), automated design and computer-automated design
are concerned with a broader range of applications, such as
automotive engineering,
civil engineering,
composite material design,
control engineering,
dynamic
system identification and optimization,
financial systems, industrial equipment,
mechatronic systems,
steel construction,
structural
optimisation,
and the invention of novel systems. More recently, traditional CAD simulation is seen to be transformed to CAutoD by biologically inspired
machine learning,
including heuristic
search techniques such as
evolutionary computation,
and
swarm intelligence algorithms.
computer audition (CA)
See
machine listening.
computer science
The theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of
computers. It involves the study of
algorithms that process, store, and communicate
digital information. A
computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.
computer vision
An
interdisciplinary scientific field that deals with how computers can be made to gain high-level understanding from
digital images or
videos. From the perspective of
engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the
human visual system can do.
concept drift
In
predictive analytics and
machine learning, the concept drift means that the statistical properties of the target variable, which the model is trying to predict, change over time in unforeseen ways. This causes problems because the predictions become less accurate as time passes.
connectionism
An approach in the fields of
cognitive science, that hopes to explain
mental phenomena using
artificial neural networks.
consistent heuristic
In the study of
path-finding problems in
artificial intelligence, a
heuristic function is said to be consistent, or monotone, if its estimate is always less than or equal to the estimated distance from any neighboring vertex to the goal, plus the cost of reaching that neighbor.
constrained conditional model (CCM)
A
machine learning and inference framework that augments the learning of conditional (probabilistic or discriminative) models with declarative constraints.
constraint logic programming
A form of
constraint programming, in which
logic programming is extended to include concepts from
constraint satisfaction. A constraint logic program is a logic program that contains constraints in the body of clauses. An example of a clause including a constraint is A(X,Y) :- X+Y>0, B(X), C(Y). In this clause, X+Y>0 is a constraint; A(X,Y), B(X), and C(Y) are
literals as in regular logic programming. This clause states one condition under which the statement A(X,Y) holds: X+Y is greater than zero and both B(X) and C(Y) are true.
constraint programming
A
programming paradigm wherein
relations between
variables are stated in the form of
constraints. Constraints differ from the common
primitives of
imperative programming languages in that they do not specify a step or sequence of steps to execute, but rather the properties of a solution to be found.
constructed language
A language whose
phonology,
grammar, and
vocabulary are consciously devised, instead of having developed
naturally. Constructed languages may also be referred to as artificial, planned, or invented languages.
control theory
In
control systems engineering is a subfield of mathematics that deals with the control of continuously operating
dynamical systems in engineered processes and machines. The objective is to develop a control model for controlling such systems using a control action in an optimum manner without delay or overshoot and ensuring control
stability.
convolutional neural network
In
deep learning, a convolutional neural network (CNN, or ConvNet) is a class of
deep neural networks, most commonly applied to analyzing visual imagery. CNNs use a variation of
multilayer perceptrons designed to require minimal
preprocessing.
They are also known as shift invariant or space invariant artificial neural networks (SIANN), based on their shared-weights architecture and
translation invariance characteristics.
crossover
In
genetic algorithms and
evolutionary computation, a
genetic operator used to combine the
genetic information of two parents to generate new offspring. It is one way to stochastically generate new
solutions from an existing population, and analogous to the
crossover that happens during
sexual reproduction in biological organisms. Solutions can also be generated by
cloning an existing solution, which is analogous to
asexual reproduction. Newly generated solutions are typically
mutated before being added to the population.
D
Darkforest
A
computer go program developed by
Facebook, based on
deep learning techniques using a
convolutional neural network. Its updated version Darkfores2 combines the techniques of its predecessor with
Monte Carlo tree search.
The MCTS effectively takes tree search methods commonly seen in computer chess programs and randomizes them.
With the update, the system is known as Darkfmcts3.
Dartmouth workshop
The Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence was the name of a 1956 summer workshop now considered by many
(though not all
) to be the
seminal event for
artificial intelligence as a field.
data augmentation
Data augmentation in data analysis are techniques used to increase the amount of data. It helps reduce
overfitting when training a
machine learning.
data fusion
The process of integrating multiple data sources to produce more consistent, accurate, and useful information than that provided by any individual data source.
data integration
The process of combining
data residing in different sources and providing users with a unified view of them.
This process becomes significant in a variety of situations, which include both commercial (such as when two similar companies need to merge their
databases) and scientific (combining research results from different
bioinformatics repositories, for example) domains. Data integration appears with increasing frequency as the volume (that is,
big data) and the need to share existing data
explodes.
It has become the focus of extensive theoretical work, and numerous open problems remain unsolved.
data mining
The process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems.
data science
An interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithms and systems to extract
knowledge and insights from
data in various forms, both structured and unstructured,
similar to
data mining. Data science is a "concept to unify statistics, data analysis, machine learning and their related methods" in order to "understand and analyze actual phenomena" with data.
It employs techniques and theories drawn from many fields within the context of
mathematics,
statistics,
information science, and
computer science.
data set
A collection of
data. Most commonly a data set corresponds to the contents of a single
database table, or a single statistical
data matrix, where every
column of the table represents a particular variable, and each
row corresponds to a given member of the data set in question. The data set lists values for each of the variables, such as height and weight of an object, for each member of the data set. Each value is known as a datum. The data set may comprise data for one or more members, corresponding to the number of rows.
data warehouse (DW or DWH)
A system used for
reporting and
data analysis.
DWs are central repositories of integrated data from one or more disparate sources. They store current and historical data in one single place
Datalog
A
declarative logic programming language that syntactically is a subset of
Prolog. It is often used as a
query language for
deductive databases. In recent years, Datalog has found new application in
data integration,
information extraction,
networking,
program analysis,
security, and
cloud computing.
decision boundary
In the case of
backpropagation-based
artificial neural networks or
perceptrons, the type of decision boundary that the network can learn is determined by the number of hidden layers the network has. If it has no hidden layers, then it can only learn linear problems. If it has one hidden layer, then it can learn any
continuous function on
compact subsets of
Rn as shown by the
Universal approximation theorem, thus it can have an arbitrary decision boundary.
decision support system (DSS)
Aan
information system that supports business or organizational
decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations and planning levels of an organization (usually mid and higher management) and help people make decisions about problems that may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance—i.e. unstructured and semi-structured decision problems. Decision support systems can be either fully computerized or human-powered, or a combination of both.
decision theory
The study of the reasoning underlying an
agent's choices.
Decision theory can be broken into two branches:
normative decision theory, which gives advice on how to make the
best decisions given a set of uncertain beliefs and a set of
values, and descriptive decision theory which analyzes how existing, possibly irrational agents actually make decisions.
decision tree learning
Uses a
decision tree (as a
predictive model) to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in
statistics,
data mining and
machine learning.
declarative programming
A
programming paradigm—a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs—that expresses the logic of a
computation without describing its
control flow.
deductive classifier
A type of
artificial intelligence inference engine. It takes as input a set of declarations in a
frame language about a domain such as medical research or molecular biology. For example, the names of
classes, sub-classes, properties, and restrictions on allowable values.
Deep Blue
was a
chess-playing computer developed by
IBM. It is known for being the first computer chess-playing system to win both a chess game and a chess match against a reigning world champion under regular time controls.
deep learning
Part of a broader family of
machine learning methods based on
learning data representations, as opposed to task-specific algorithms. Learning can be
supervised,
semi-supervised, or
unsupervised.
DeepMind Technologies
A
British artificial intelligence company founded in September 2010, currently owned by
Alphabet Inc. The company is based in
London, with research centres in
Canada,
France,
and the
United States.
Acquired by
Google in 2014, the company has created a
neural network that learns how to play
video games in a fashion similar to that of humans,
as well as a
neural Turing machine,
or a neural network that may be able to access an external memory like a conventional
Turing machine, resulting in a computer that mimics the
short-term memory of the human brain.
The company made headlines in 2016 after its
AlphaGo program beat human professional
Go player
Lee Sedol, the world champion, in
a five-game match, which was the subject of a documentary film.
A more general program,
AlphaZero, beat the most powerful programs playing
Go,
chess, and
shogi (Japanese chess) after a few days of play against itself using
reinforcement learning.
default logic
A
non-monotonic logic proposed by
Raymond Reiter to formalize reasoning with default assumptions.
description logic (DL)
A family of formal
knowledge representation languages. Many DLs are more expressive than
propositional logic but less expressive than
first-order logic. In contrast to the latter, the core reasoning problems for DLs are (usually)
decidable, and efficient decision procedures have been designed and implemented for these problems. There are general, spatial, temporal, spatiotemporal, and fuzzy descriptions logics, and each description logic features a different balance between DL expressivity and
reasoning complexity by supporting different sets of mathematical constructors.
developmental robotics (DevRob)
A scientific field which aims at studying the developmental mechanisms, architectures, and constraints that allow lifelong and open-ended learning of new skills and new knowledge in embodied
machines.
diagnosis
Concerned with the development of algorithms and techniques that are able to determine whether the behaviour of a system is correct. If the system is not functioning correctly, the algorithm should be able to determine, as accurately as possible, which part of the system is failing, and which kind of fault it is facing. The computation is based on observations, which provide information on the current behaviour.
dialogue system
A computer system intended to converse with a human with a coherent structure. Dialogue systems have employed text, speech, graphics, haptics, gestures, and other modes for communication on both the input and output channel.
diffusion model
In
machine learning, diffusion models, also known as diffusion probabilistic models or score-based generative models, are a class of
latent variable models. They are
Markov chains trained using
variational inference.
The goal of diffusion models is to learn the latent structure of a dataset by modeling the way in which data points diffuse through the
latent space. In
computer vision, this means that a neural network is trained to
denoise images blurred with
Gaussian noise by learning to reverse the diffusion process.
It mainly consists of three major components: the forward process, the reverse process, and the sampling procedure.
Three examples of generic diffusion modeling frameworks used in computer vision are denoising diffusion probabilistic models, noise conditioned score networks, and stochastic differential equations.
dimensionality reduction
The process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration
by obtaining a set of principal variables. It can be divided into
feature selection and
feature extraction.
discrete system
Any system with a countable number of states. Discrete systems may be contrasted with continuous systems, which may also be called analog systems. A final discrete system is often modeled with a directed
graph and is analyzed for correctness and complexity according to
computational theory. Because discrete systems have a countable number of states, they may be described in precise
mathematical models. A
computer is a
finite state machine that may be viewed as a discrete system. Because computers are often used to model not only other discrete systems but continuous systems as well, methods have been developed to represent real-world continuous systems as discrete systems. One such method involves sampling a continuous signal at
discrete time intervals.
distributed artificial intelligence (DAI)
A subfield of
artificial intelligence research dedicated to the development of distributed solutions for problems. DAI is closely related to and a predecessor of the field of
multi-agent systems.
dynamic epistemic logic (DEL)
A logical framework dealing with knowledge and information change. Typically, DEL focuses on situations involving multiple
agents and studies how their knowledge changes when
events occur.
E
eager learning
A learning method in which the system tries to construct a general, input-independent target function during training of the system, as opposed to
lazy learning, where generalization beyond the training data is delayed until a query is made to the system.
Ebert test
A test which gauges whether a computer-based
synthesized voice can tell a
joke with sufficient skill to cause people to
laugh.
It was proposed by
film critic Roger Ebert at the
2011 TED conference as a challenge to
software developers to have a computerized voice master the inflections, delivery, timing, and intonations of a speaking human.
The test is similar to the
Turing test proposed by
Alan Turing in 1950 as a way to gauge a computer's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior by generating performance indistinguishable from a
human being.
echo state network (ESN)
A
recurrent neural network with a sparsely connected hidden layer (with typically 1% connectivity). The connectivity and weights of hidden
neurons are fixed and randomly assigned. The weights of output neurons can be learned so that the network can (re)produce specific temporal patterns. The main interest of this network is that although its behaviour is non-linear, the only weights that are modified during training are for the synapses that connect the hidden neurons to output neurons. Thus, the error function is quadratic with respect to the parameter vector and can be differentiated easily to a linear system.
embodied agent
An
intelligent agent that interacts with the environment through a physical body within that environment. Agents that are represented graphically with a body, for example a human or a cartoon animal, are also called embodied agents, although they have only virtual, not physical, embodiment.
embodied cognitive science
An interdisciplinary field of research, the aim of which is to explain the mechanisms underlying intelligent behavior. It comprises three main methodologies: 1) the modeling of psychological and biological systems in a holistic manner that considers the mind and body as a single entity, 2) the formation of a common set of general principles of intelligent behavior, and 3) the experimental use of robotic agents in controlled environments.
error-driven learning
A sub-area of
machine learning concerned with how an
agent ought to take actions in an
environment so as to minimize some error feedback. It is a type of
reinforcement learning.
ensemble averaging
In
machine learning, particularly in the creation of
artificial neural networks, ensemble averaging is the process of creating multiple models and combining them to produce a desired output, as opposed to creating just one model.
epoch (machine learning)
In
machine learning, particularly in the creation of
artificial neural networks, an epoch is training the model for one cycle through the full training dataset. Small models are typically trained for as many epochs as it takes to reach the best performance on the validation dataset. The largest models may train for only one epoch.
ethics of artificial intelligence
The part of the
ethics of technology specific to artificial intelligence.
evolutionary algorithm (EA)
A subset of
evolutionary computation,
a generic population-based
metaheuristic optimization algorithm. An EA uses mechanisms inspired by
biological evolution, such as
reproduction,
mutation,
recombination, and
selection.
Candidate solutions to the
optimization problem play the role of individuals in a population, and the
fitness function determines the quality of the solutions (see also
loss function).
Evolution of the population then takes place after the repeated application of the above operators.
evolutionary computation
A family of
algorithms for
global optimization inspired by
biological evolution, and the subfield of
artificial intelligence and
soft computing studying these algorithms. In technical terms, they are a family of population-based
trial and error problem solvers with a
metaheuristic or
stochastic optimization character.
evolving classification function (ECF)
Evolving classifier functions or evolving
classifiers are used for classifying and clustering in the field of
machine learning and
artificial intelligence, typically employed for
data stream mining tasks in dynamic and changing environments.
existential risk
The hypothesis that substantial progress in
artificial general intelligence (AGI) could someday result in
human extinction or some other unrecoverable
global catastrophe.
expert system
A computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert.
Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by
reasoning through bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as
if–then rules rather than through conventional
procedural code.
F
fast-and-frugal trees
A type of
classification tree. Fast-and-frugal trees can be used as decision-making tools which operate as lexicographic classifiers, and, if required, associate an action (decision) to each class or category.
feature extraction
In
machine learning,
pattern recognition, and
image processing, feature extraction starts from an initial set of measured data and builds derived values (
features) intended to be informative and non-redundant, facilitating the subsequent learning and generalization steps, and in some cases leading to better human interpretations.
feature learning
In
machine learning, feature learning or representation learning
is a set of techniques that allows a system to automatically discover the representations needed for feature detection or classification from raw data. This replaces manual
feature engineering and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.
feature selection
In
machine learning and
statistics, feature selection, also known as variable selection, attribute selection or variable subset selection, is the process of selecting a subset of relevant
features (variables, predictors) for use in model construction.
federated learning
A type of machine learning that allows for training on multiple devices with decentralized data, thus helping preserve the privacy of individual users and their data.
first-order logic
A collection of
formal systems used in
mathematics,
philosophy,
linguistics, and
computer science. First-order logic uses
quantified variables over non-logical objects and allows the use of sentences that contain variables, so that rather than propositions such as Socrates is a man one can have expressions in the form "there exists X such that X is
Socrates and X is a man" and there exists is a quantifier while X is a variable.
This distinguishes it from
propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers or relations.
fluent
A condition that can change over time. In logical approaches to reasoning about actions, fluents can be represented in
first-order logic by
predicates having an argument that depends on time.
formal language
A set of
words whose
letters are taken from an
alphabet and are
well-formed according to a specific set of rules.
forward chaining
One of the two main methods of reasoning when using an
inference engine and can be described
logically as repeated application of
modus ponens. Forward chaining is a popular implementation strategy for
expert systems,
businesses and
production rule systems. The opposite of forward chaining is
backward chaining. Forward chaining starts with the available
data and uses inference rules to extract more data (from an end user, for example) until a
goal is reached. An
inference engine using forward chaining searches the inference rules until it finds one where the
antecedent (If clause) is known to be true. When such a rule is found, the engine can conclude, or infer, the
consequent (Then clause), resulting in the addition of new
information to its data.
frame
An artificial intelligence
data structure used to divide
knowledge into substructures by representing "
stereotyped situations". Frames are the primary data structure used in artificial intelligence
frame language.
frame language
A technology used for
knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. Frames are stored as
ontologies of
sets and subsets of the
frame concepts. They are similar to class hierarchies in
object-oriented languages although their fundamental design goals are different. Frames are focused on explicit and intuitive representation of knowledge whereas objects focus on
encapsulation and
information hiding. Frames originated in AI research and objects primarily in
software engineering. However, in practice the techniques and capabilities of frame and object-oriented languages overlap significantly.
frame problem
The problem of finding adequate collections of axioms for a viable description of a robot environment.
friendly artificial intelligence
A hypothetical
artificial general intelligence (AGI) that would have a positive effect on humanity. It is a part of the
ethics of artificial intelligence and is closely related to
machine ethics. While machine ethics is concerned with how an artificially intelligent agent should behave, friendly artificial intelligence research is focused on how to practically bring about this behaviour and ensuring it is adequately constrained.
futures studies
The study of postulating possible, probable, and preferable
futures and the worldviews and myths that underlie them.
fuzzy control system
A
control system based on
fuzzy logic—a
mathematical system that analyzes
analog input values in terms of
logical variables that take on continuous values between 0 and 1, in contrast to classical or
digital logic, which operates on discrete values of either 1 or 0 (true or false, respectively).
fuzzy logic
A simple form for the
many-valued logic, in which the
truth values of variables may have any degree of "Truthfulness" that can be represented by any real number in the range between 0 (as in Completely False) and 1 (as in Completely True) inclusive. Consequently, It is employed to handle the concept of partial truth, where the truth value may range between completely true and completely false. In contrast to
Boolean logic, where the truth values of variables may have the integer values 0 or 1 only.
fuzzy rule
A rule used within
fuzzy logic systems to infer an output based on input variables.
fuzzy set
In classical
set theory, the membership of elements in a set is assessed in binary terms according to a
bivalent condition — an element either belongs or does not belong to the set. By contrast, fuzzy set theory permits the gradual assessment of the membership of elements in a set; this is described with the aid of a
membership function valued in the real unit interval . Fuzzy sets generalize classical sets, since the
indicator functions (aka characteristic functions) of classical sets are special cases of the membership functions of fuzzy sets, if the latter only take values 0 or 1.
In fuzzy set theory, classical bivalent sets are usually called
crisp sets. The fuzzy set theory can be used in a wide range of domains in which information is incomplete or imprecise, such as
bioinformatics.
G
game theory
The study of
mathematical models of strategic interaction between rational decision-makers.
general game playing (GGP)
General game playing is the design of artificial intelligence programs to be able to run and play more than one game successfully.
generative adversarial network (GAN)
A class of
machine learning systems. Two
neural networks contest with each other in a
zero-sum game framework.
generative artificial intelligence
Generative artificial intelligence is
artificial intelligence capable of generating text, images, or other media in response to
prompts.
Generative AI models
learn the patterns and structure of their input
training data and then generate new data that has similar characteristics, typically using
Transformer-based
deep neural networks.
genetic algorithm (GA)
A
metaheuristic inspired by the process of
natural selection that belongs to the larger class of
evolutionary algorithms (EA). Genetic algorithms are commonly used to generate high-quality solutions to
optimization and
search problems by relying on bio-inspired operators such as
mutation,
crossover and
selection.
genetic operator
An
operator used in
genetic algorithms to guide the algorithm towards a solution to a given problem. There are three main types of operators (
mutation,
crossover and
selection), which must work in conjunction with one another in order for the algorithm to be successful.
generative pretrained transformer (GPT)
A
large language model based on the
transformer architecture that generates text. It is first pretrained to predict the next
token in texts (a token is typically a word, subword, or punctuation). After their pretraining, GPT models can generate human-like text by repeatedly predicting the token that they would expect to follow. GPT models are usually also fine-tuned, for example with
RLHF to reduce
hallucinations or harmful behaviour, or to format the ouput in a conversationnal format.
glowworm swarm optimization
A
swarm intelligence optimization algorithm based on the behaviour of
glowworms (also known as fireflies or lightning bugs).
graph (abstract data type)
In
computer science, a graph is an
abstract data type that is meant to implement the
undirected graph and
directed graph concepts from
mathematics; specifically, the field of
graph theory.
graph (discrete mathematics)
In mathematics, and more specifically in
graph theory, a graph is a structure amounting to a set of objects in which some pairs of the objects are in some sense "related". The objects correspond to mathematical abstractions called
vertices (also called nodes or points) and each of the related pairs of vertices is called an edge (also called an arc or line).
graph database (GDB)
A
database that uses
graph structures for
semantic queries with
nodes,
edges, and properties to represent and store data. A key concept of the system is the graph (or edge or relationship), which directly relates data items in the store a collection of nodes of data and edges representing the relationships between the nodes. The relationships allow data in the store to be linked together directly, and in many cases retrieved with one operation. Graph databases hold the relationships between data as a priority. Querying relationships within a graph database is fast because they are perpetually stored within the database itself. Relationships can be intuitively visualized using graph databases, making it useful for heavily inter-connected data.
graph theory
The study of
graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects.
graph traversal
The process of visiting (checking and/or updating) each vertex in a
graph. Such traversals are classified by the order in which the vertices are visited.
Tree traversal is a special case of graph traversal.
H
halting problem
heuristic
A technique designed for
solving a problem more quickly when classic methods are too slow, or for finding an approximate solution when classic methods fail to find any exact solution. This is achieved by trading optimality, completeness,
accuracy, or
precision for speed. In a way, it can be considered a shortcut. A heuristic function, also called simply a heuristic, is a
function that ranks alternatives in
search algorithms at each branching step based on available information to decide which branch to follow. For example, it may approximate the exact solution.
hidden layer
An internal layer of neurons in an
artificial neural network, not dedicated to input or output.
hidden unit
A neuron in a hidden layer in an
artificial neural network.
hyper-heuristic
A
heuristic search method that seeks to automate the process of selecting, combining, generating, or adapting several simpler heuristics (or components of such heuristics) to efficiently solve computational search problems, often by the incorporation of
machine learning techniques. One of the motivations for studying hyper-heuristics is to build systems which can handle classes of problems rather than solving just one problem.
I
IEEE Computational Intelligence Society
A
professional society of the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) focussing on "the theory, design, application, and development of biologically and linguistically motivated computational paradigms emphasizing
neural networks, connectionist systems,
genetic algorithms,
evolutionary programming, fuzzy systems, and hybrid intelligent systems in which these paradigms are contained".
incremental learning
A method of
machine learning, in which input data is continuously used to extend the existing model's knowledge i.e. to further train the model. It represents a dynamic technique of
supervised learning and
unsupervised learning that can be applied when training data becomes available gradually over time or its size is out of system memory limits. Algorithms that can facilitate incremental learning are known as incremental machine learning algorithms.
inference engine
A component of the system that applies logical rules to the knowledge base to deduce new information.
information integration (II)
The merging of information from heterogeneous sources with differing conceptual, contextual and typographical representations. It is used in
data mining and consolidation of data from unstructured or semi-structured resources. Typically, information integration refers to textual representations of knowledge but is sometimes applied to
rich-media content. Information fusion, which is a related term, involves the combination of information into a new set of information towards reducing redundancy and uncertainty.
Information Processing Language (IPL)
A
programming language that includes features intended to help with programs that perform simple problem solving actions such as lists,
dynamic memory allocation,
data types,
recursion,
functions as arguments, generators, and
cooperative multitasking. IPL invented the concept of list processing, albeit in an
assembly-language style.
intelligence amplification (IA)
The effective use of
information technology in augmenting
human intelligence.
intelligence explosion
A possible outcome of humanity building
artificial general intelligence (AGI). AGI would be capable of recursive self-improvement leading to rapid emergence of ASI (
artificial superintelligence), the limits of which are unknown, at the time of the technological singularity.
intelligent agent (IA)
An
autonomous entity which acts, directing its activity towards achieving goals (i.e. it is an
agent), upon an
environment using observation through sensors and consequent actuators (i.e. it is intelligent). Intelligent agents may also
learn or use
knowledge to achieve their goals. They may be very simple or
very complex.
intelligent control
A class of
control techniques that use various
artificial intelligence computing approaches like
neural networks,
Bayesian probability,
fuzzy logic,
machine learning,
reinforcement learning,
evolutionary computation and
genetic algorithms.
intelligent personal assistant
A
software agent that can perform tasks or services for an individual based on verbal commands. Sometimes the term "
chatbot" is used to refer to virtual assistants generally or specifically accessed by
online chat (or in some cases online chat programs that are exclusively for entertainment purposes). Some virtual assistants are able to interpret human speech and respond via synthesized voices. Users can ask their assistants questions, control
home automation devices and media playback via voice, and manage other basic tasks such as email, to-do lists, and calendars with verbal commands.
interpretation
An assignment of meaning to the
symbols of a
formal language. Many formal languages used in
mathematics,
logic, and
theoretical computer science are defined in solely
syntactic terms, and as such do not have any meaning until they are given some interpretation. The general study of interpretations of formal languages is called
formal semantics.
intrinsic motivation
An
intelligent agent is intrinsically motivated to act if the information content alone, of the experience resulting from the action, is the motivating factor. Information content in this context is measured in the
information theory sense as quantifying uncertainty. A typical intrinsic motivation is to search for unusual (surprising) situations, in contrast to a typical extrinsic motivation such as the search for food. Intrinsically motivated artificial agents display behaviours akin to
exploration and
curiosity.
issue tree
A graphical breakdown of a question that dissects it into its different components vertically and that progresses into details as it reads to the right.
: 47 Issue trees are useful in
problem solving to identify the root causes of a problem as well as to identify its potential solutions. They also provide a reference point to see how each piece fits into the whole picture of a problem.
J
junction tree algorithm
A method used in
machine learning to extract
marginalization in general
graphs. In essence, it entails performing
belief propagation on a modified graph called a
junction tree. The graph is called a tree because it branches into different sections of data;
nodes of variables are the branches.
K
kernel method
In
machine learning, kernel methods are a class of algorithms for
pattern analysis, whose best known member is the
support vector machine (SVM). The general task of pattern analysis is to find and study general types of relations (for example
clusters,
rankings,
principal components,
correlations,
classifications) in datasets.
KL-ONE
A well-known
knowledge representation system in the tradition of
semantic networks and
frames; that is, it is a
frame language. The system is an attempt to overcome semantic indistinctness in semantic network representations and to explicitly represent conceptual information as a structured inheritance network.
knowledge acquisition
The process used to define the rules and ontologies required for a
knowledge-based system. The phrase was first used in conjunction with
expert systems to describe the initial tasks associated with developing an expert system, namely finding and interviewing
domain experts and capturing their knowledge via
rules,
objects, and
frame-based ontologies.
knowledge-based system (KBS)
A
computer program that
reasons and uses a
knowledge base to
solve complex problems. The term is broad and refers to many different kinds of systems. The one common theme that unites all knowledge based systems is an attempt to represent knowledge explicitly and a
reasoning system that allows it to derive new knowledge. Thus, a knowledge-based system has two distinguishing features: a
knowledge base and an
inference engine.
knowledge engineering (KE)
All technical, scientific, and social aspects involved in building, maintaining, and using
knowledge-based systems.
knowledge extraction
The creation of
knowledge from structured (
relational databases,
XML) and unstructured (
text, documents,
images) sources. The resulting knowledge needs to be in a machine-readable and machine-interpretable format and must
represent knowledge in a manner that facilitates inferencing. Although it is methodically similar to
information extraction (
NLP) and
ETL (data warehouse), the main criterion is that the extraction result goes beyond the creation of structured information or the transformation into a
relational schema. It requires either the reuse of existing
formal knowledge (reusing identifiers or
ontologies) or the generation of a schema based on the source data.
knowledge Interchange Format (KIF)
A computer language designed to enable systems to share and re-use information from
knowledge-based systems. KIF is similar to
frame languages such as
KL-ONE and
LOOM but unlike such language its primary role is not intended as a framework for the expression or use of knowledge but rather for the interchange of knowledge between systems. The designers of KIF likened it to
PostScript. PostScript was not designed primarily as a language to store and manipulate documents but rather as an interchange format for systems and devices to share documents. In the same way KIF is meant to facilitate sharing of knowledge across different systems that use different languages, formalisms, platforms, etc.
knowledge representation and reasoning (KR² or KR&R)
The field of
artificial intelligence dedicated to representing information about the world in a form that a computer system can utilize to solve complex tasks such as
diagnosing a medical condition or
having a dialog in a natural language. Knowledge representation incorporates findings from psychology
about how humans solve problems and represent knowledge in order to design
formalisms that will make complex systems easier to design and build. Knowledge representation and reasoning also incorporates findings from
logic to automate various kinds of reasoning, such as the application of rules or the relations of
sets and
subsets.
Examples of knowledge representation formalisms include
semantic nets,
systems architecture,
frames, rules, and
ontologies. Examples of
automated reasoning engines include
inference engines,
theorem provers, and classifiers.
L
language model
A probabilistic model that manipulates
natural language.
large language model (LLM)
A
language model with a large number of parameters (typically at least a billion) that are adjusted during training. Due to its size, it requires a lot of data and computing capability to train. Large language models are usually based on the
transformer architecture.
lazy learning
In
machine learning, lazy learning is a learning method in which generalization of the
training data is, in theory, delayed until a query is made to the system, as opposed to in
eager learning, where the system tries to generalize the training data before receiving queries.
Lisp (programming language) (LISP)
A family of
programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully
parenthesized prefix notation.
logic programming
A type of
programming paradigm which is largely based on
formal logic. Any program written in a logic
programming language is a set of sentences in logical form, expressing facts and rules about some problem domain. Major logic programming language families include
Prolog,
answer set programming (ASP), and
Datalog.
long short-term memory (LSTM)
An artificial
recurrent neural network architecture
used in the field of
deep learning. Unlike standard
feedforward neural networks, LSTM has feedback connections that make it a "general purpose computer" (that is, it can compute anything that a
Turing machine can).
It can not only process single data points (such as images), but also entire sequences of data (such as speech or video).
M
machine vision (MV)
The technology and methods used to provide imaging-based automatic inspection and analysis for such applications as automatic inspection,
process control, and robot guidance, usually in industry. Machine vision is a term encompassing a large number of technologies, software and hardware products, integrated systems, actions, methods and expertise. Machine vision as a
systems engineering discipline can be considered distinct from
computer vision, a form of
computer science. It attempts to integrate existing technologies in new ways and apply them to solve real world problems. The term is the prevalent one for these functions in industrial automation environments but is also used for these functions in other environments such as security and vehicle guidance.
Markov chain
A
stochastic model describing a
sequence of possible events in which the probability of each event depends only on the state attained in the previous event.
Markov decision process (MDP)
A
discrete time stochastic control process. It provides a mathematical framework for modeling
decision making in situations where outcomes are partly
random and partly under the control of a decision maker. MDPs are useful for studying
optimization problems solved via
dynamic programming and
reinforcement learning.
mathematical optimization
In
mathematics,
computer science, and
operations research, the selection of a best element (with regard to some criterion) from some set of available alternatives.
machine learning (ML)
The
scientific study of
algorithms and
statistical models that
computer systems use in order to perform a specific task effectively without using explicit instructions, relying on patterns and inference instead.
machine listening
A general field of study of
algorithms and systems for audio understanding by machine.
machine perception
The capability of a computer system to interpret data in a manner that is similar to the way humans use their senses to relate to the world around them.
mechanism design
A field in
economics and
game theory that takes an
engineering approach to designing economic mechanisms or
incentives, toward desired objectives, in
strategic settings, where players act
rationally. Because it starts at the end of the game, then goes backwards, it is also called reverse game theory. It has broad applications, from economics and politics (markets, auctions, voting procedures) to networked-systems (internet interdomain routing, sponsored search auctions).
mechatronics
A
multidisciplinary branch of engineering that focuses on the engineering of both
electrical and
mechanical systems, and also includes a combination of
robotics,
electronics,
computer,
telecommunications,
systems,
control, and
product engineering.
metabolic network reconstruction and simulation
Allows for an in-depth insight into the molecular mechanisms of a particular organism. In particular, these models correlate the
genome with molecular physiology.
metaheuristic
In
computer science and
mathematical optimization, a metaheuristic is a higher-level
procedure or
heuristic designed to find, generate, or select a heuristic (partial
search algorithm) that may provide a sufficiently good solution to an
optimization problem, especially with incomplete or imperfect information or limited computation capacity.
Metaheuristics sample a set of solutions which is too large to be completely sampled.
model checking
In
computer science, model checking or property checking is, for a given model of a system, exhaustively and automatically checking whether this model meets a given
specification. Typically, one has hardware or software systems in mind, whereas the specification contains safety requirements such as the absence of
deadlocks and similar critical states that can cause the system to
crash. Model checking is a technique for automatically verifying correctness properties of finite-state systems.
modus ponens
In
propositional logic, modus ponens is a
rule of inference.
It can be summarized as "P
implies Q and P is asserted to be true, therefore Q must be true."
modus tollens
In
propositional logic, modus tollens is a
valid argument form and a
rule of inference. It is an application of the general truth that if a statement is true, then so is its
contrapositive. The inference rule modus tollens asserts that the
inference from P implies Q to the negation of Q implies the negation of P is valid.
Monte Carlo tree search
In
computer science, Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) is a
heuristic search algorithm for some kinds of
decision processes.
multi-agent system (MAS)
A computerized system composed of multiple interacting
intelligent agents. Multi-agent systems can solve problems that are difficult or impossible for an individual agent or a
monolithic system to solve. Intelligence may include
methodic,
functional,
procedural approaches,
algorithmic search or
reinforcement learning.
multi-swarm optimization
A variant of
particle swarm optimization (PSO) based on the use of multiple sub-swarms instead of one (standard) swarm. The general approach in multi-swarm optimization is that each sub-swarm focuses on a specific region while a specific diversification method decides where and when to launch the sub-swarms. The multi-swarm framework is especially fitted for the optimization on multi-modal problems, where multiple (local) optima exist.
mutation
A
genetic operator used to maintain
genetic diversity from one generation of a population of
genetic algorithm chromosomes to the next. It is analogous to biological
mutation. Mutation alters one or more gene values in a chromosome from its initial state. In mutation, the solution may change entirely from the previous solution. Hence GA can come to a better solution by using mutation. Mutation occurs during evolution according to a user-definable mutation probability. This probability should be set low. If it is set too high, the search will turn into a primitive random search.
Mycin
An early
backward chaining expert system that used
artificial intelligence to identify bacteria causing severe infections, such as
bacteremia and
meningitis, and to recommend
antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for patient's body weight – the name derived from the antibiotics themselves, as many antibiotics have the suffix "-mycin". The MYCIN system was also used for the diagnosis of blood clotting diseases.
N
naive Bayes classifier
In
machine learning, naive Bayes classifiers are a family of simple
probabilistic classifiers based on applying
Bayes' theorem with strong (naive)
independence assumptions between the features.
naive semantics
An approach used in computer science for
representing basic knowledge about a specific domain, and has been used in applications such as the representation of the meaning of natural language sentences in artificial intelligence applications. In a general setting the term has been used to refer to the use of a limited store of generally understood knowledge about a specific domain in the world, and has been applied to fields such as the knowledge based design of data schemas.
name binding
In programming languages, name binding is the association of entities (data and/or code) with
identifiers.
An identifier bound to an object is said to
reference that object.
Machine languages have no built-in notion of identifiers, but name-object bindings as a service and notation for the programmer is implemented by programming languages. Binding is intimately connected with
scoping, as scope determines which names bind to which objects – at which locations in the program code (
lexically) and in which one of the possible execution paths (
temporally). Use of an identifier id in a context that establishes a binding for id is called a binding (or defining) occurrence. In all other occurrences (e.g., in expressions, assignments, and subprogram calls), an identifier stands for what it is bound to; such occurrences are called applied occurrences.
named-entity recognition (NER)
A subtask of
information extraction that seeks to locate and classify
named entity mentions in
unstructured text into pre-defined categories such as the person names, organizations, locations,
medical codes, time expressions, quantities, monetary values, percentages, etc.
named graph
A key concept of
Semantic Web architecture in which a set of
Resource Description Framework statements (a
graph) are identified using a
URI,
allowing descriptions to be made of that set of statements such as context, provenance information or other such
metadata. Named graphs are a simple extension of the RDF data model
through which graphs can be created but the model lacks an effective means of distinguishing between them once published on the
Web at large.
natural language generation (NLG)
A software process that transforms structured data into plain-English content. It can be used to produce long-form content for organizations to automate custom reports, as well as produce custom content for a web or mobile application. It can also be used to generate short blurbs of text in interactive conversations (a
chatbot) which might even be read out loud by a
text-to-speech system.
natural language processing (NLP)
A subfield of computer science, information engineering, and artificial intelligence concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages, in particular how to program computers to process and analyze large amounts of
natural language data.
natural language programming
An
ontology-assisted way of
programming in terms of
natural-language sentences, e.g.
English.
network motif
All networks, including biological networks, social networks, technological networks (e.g., computer networks and electrical circuits) and more, can be represented as
graphs, which include a wide variety of subgraphs. One important local property of networks are so-called network motifs, which are defined as recurrent and
statistically significant sub-graphs or patterns.
neural machine translation (NMT)
An approach to
machine translation that uses a large
artificial neural network to predict the likelihood of a sequence of words, typically modeling entire sentences in a single integrated model.
neural network
A neural network can refer to either a
neural circuit of biological
neurons (sometimes also called a biological neural network), or a network of
artificial neurons or
nodes in the case of an
artificial neural network.
Artificial neural networks are used for solving
artificial intelligence (AI) problems; they model connections of biological neurons as weights between nodes. A positive weight reflects an excitatory connection, while negative values mean inhibitory connections. All inputs are modified by a weight and summed. This activity is referred to as a
linear combination. Finally, an activation function controls the
amplitude of the output. For example, an acceptable range of output is usually between 0 and 1, or it could be −1 and 1.
neural Turing machine (NTM)
A
recurrent neural network model. NTMs combine the fuzzy
pattern matching capabilities of
neural networks with the
algorithmic power of
programmable computers. An NTM has a neural network controller coupled to
external memory resources, which it interacts with through attentional mechanisms. The memory interactions are differentiable end-to-end, making it possible to optimize them using
gradient descent.
An NTM with a
long short-term memory (LSTM) network controller can infer simple algorithms such as copying, sorting, and associative recall from examples alone.
neuro-fuzzy
Combinations of
artificial neural networks and
fuzzy logic.
neurocybernetics
A direct communication pathway between an enhanced or wired
brain and an external device. BCI differs from
neuromodulation in that it allows for bidirectional information flow. BCIs are often directed at researching, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions.
neuromorphic engineering
A concept describing the use of
very-large-scale integration (VLSI) systems containing electronic
analog circuits to mimic neuro-biological architectures present in the nervous system.
In recent times, the term neuromorphic has been used to describe analog, digital, mixed-mode analog/digital VLSI, and software systems that implement models of
neural systems (for
perception,
motor control, or
multisensory integration). The implementation of neuromorphic computing on the hardware level can be realized by oxide-based
memristors,
spintronic memories,
threshold switches, and
transistors.
node
A basic unit of a
data structure, such as a
linked list or
tree data structure. Nodes contain
data and also may link to other nodes. Links between nodes are often implemented by
pointers.
nondeterministic algorithm
An
algorithm that, even for the same input, can exhibit different behaviors on different runs, as opposed to a
deterministic algorithm.
nouvelle AI
Nouvelle AI differs from
classical AI by aiming to produce robots with intelligence levels similar to insects. Researchers believe that intelligence can emerge organically from simple behaviors as these intelligences interacted with the "real world", instead of using the constructed worlds which symbolic AIs typically needed to have programmed into them.
NP
In
computational complexity theory, NP (nondeterministic polynomial time) is a
complexity class used to classify
decision problems. NP is the
set of decision problems for which the
problem instances, where the answer is "yes", have
proofs verifiable in
polynomial time.
NP-completeness
In
computational complexity theory, a problem is NP-complete when it can be solved by a restricted class of
brute force search algorithms and it can be used to simulate any other problem with a similar algorithm. More precisely, each input to the problem should be associated with a set of solutions of polynomial length, whose validity can be tested quickly (in
polynomial time), such that the output for any input is "yes" if the solution set is non-empty and "no" if it is empty.
NP-hardness
In
computational complexity theory, the defining property of a class of problems that are, informally, "at least as hard as the hardest problems in NP". A simple example of an NP-hard problem is the
subset sum problem.
O
Occam's razor
The problem-solving principle that states that when presented with competing
hypotheses that make the same predictions, one should select the solution with the fewest assumptions;
the principle is not meant to filter out hypotheses that make different predictions. The idea is attributed to the English
Franciscan friar
William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347), a
scholastic philosopher and
theologian.
offline learning
online machine learning
A method of
machine learning in which data becomes available in a sequential order and is used to update the best predictor for future data at each step, as opposed to batch learning techniques which generate the best predictor by learning on the entire training data set at once. Online learning is a common technique used in areas of machine learning where it is computationally infeasible to train over the entire dataset, requiring the need of
out-of-core algorithms. It is also used in situations where it is necessary for the algorithm to dynamically adapt to new patterns in the data, or when the data itself is generated as a function of time.
ontology learning
The automatic or semi-automatic creation of
ontologies, including extracting the corresponding
domain's terms and the relationships between the
concepts that these terms represent from a
corpus of natural language text, and encoding them with an
ontology language for easy retrieval.
OpenAI
The for-profit corporation OpenAI LP, whose
parent organization is the non-profit organization OpenAI Inc
that conducts research in the field of
artificial intelligence (AI) with the stated aim to promote and develop
friendly AI in such a way as to benefit humanity as a whole.
OpenCog
A project that aims to build an
open-source artificial intelligence framework. OpenCog Prime is an architecture for robot and virtual
embodied cognition that defines a set of interacting components designed to give rise to human-equivalent
artificial general intelligence (AGI) as an
emergent phenomenon of the whole system.
Open Mind Common Sense
An artificial intelligence project based at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
Media Lab whose goal is to build and utilize a large
commonsense knowledge base from the contributions of many thousands of people across the Web.
open-source software (OSS)
A type of
computer software in which
source code is released under a
license in which the
copyright holder grants users the rights to study, change, and
distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose.
Open-source
software may be developed in a
collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of
open collaboration.
P
Parameter#Artificial_Intelligence
partial order reduction
A technique for reducing the size of the
state-space to be searched by a
model checking or
automated planning and scheduling algorithm. It exploits the commutativity of concurrently executed
transitions, which result in the same state when executed in different orders.
partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP)
A generalization of a
Markov decision process (MDP). A POMDP models an agent decision process in which it is assumed that the system dynamics are determined by an MDP, but the agent cannot directly observe the underlying state. Instead, it must maintain a probability distribution over the set of possible states, based on a set of observations and observation probabilities, and the underlying MDP.
particle swarm optimization (PSO)
A computational method that
optimizes a problem by
iteratively trying to improve a
candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality. It solves a problem by having a population of candidate solutions, here dubbed
particles, and moving these particles around in the
search-space according to simple
mathematical formulae over the particle's position and velocity. Each particle's movement is influenced by its local best known position, but is also guided toward the best known positions in the search-space, which are updated as better positions are found by other particles. This is expected to move the swarm toward the best solutions.
pathfinding
The plotting, by a computer application, of the shortest route between two points. It is a more practical variant on
solving mazes. This field of research is based heavily on
Dijkstra's algorithm for finding a shortest path on a
weighted graph.
pattern recognition
Concerned with the automatic discovery of regularities in data through the use of computer algorithms and with the use of these regularities to take actions such as classifying the data into different categories.
predicate logic
A collection of
formal systems used in
mathematics,
philosophy,
linguistics, and
computer science. First-order logic uses
quantified variables over non-logical objects and allows the use of sentences that contain variables, so that rather than propositions such as Socrates is a man one can have expressions in the form "there exists x such that x is Socrates and x is a man" and there exists is a quantifier while x is a variable.
This distinguishes it from
propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers or
relations;
in this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic.
predictive analytics
A variety of statistical techniques from
data mining,
predictive modelling, and
machine learning, that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about future or otherwise unknown events.
principal component analysis (PCA)
A statistical procedure that uses an
orthogonal transformation to convert a set of observations of possibly correlated variables (entities each of which takes on various numerical values) into a set of values of
linearly uncorrelated variables called principal components. This transformation is defined in such a way that the first principal component has the largest possible
variance (that is, accounts for as much of the variability in the data as possible), and each succeeding component, in turn, has the highest variance possible under the constraint that it is
orthogonal to the preceding components. The resulting vectors (each being a
linear combination of the variables and containing n observations) are an uncorrelated
orthogonal basis set. PCA is sensitive to the relative scaling of the original variables.
principle of rationality
A principle coined by
Karl R. Popper in his Harvard Lecture of 1963, and published in his book Myth of Framework.
It is related to what he called the 'logic of the situation' in an Economica article of 1944/1945, published later in his book The Poverty of Historicism.
According to Popper's rationality principle, agents act in the most adequate way according to the objective situation. It is an idealized conception of human behavior which he used to drive his model of
situational analysis.
probabilistic programming (PP)
A
programming paradigm in which
probabilistic models are specified and inference for these models is performed automatically.
It represents an attempt to unify probabilistic modeling and traditional general-purpose programming in order to make the former easier and more widely applicable.
It can be used to create systems that help make decisions in the face of uncertainty. Programming languages used for probabilistic programming are referred to as "Probabilistic programming languages" (PPLs).
production system
programming language
A
formal language, which comprises a
set of instructions that produce various kinds of
output. Programming languages are used in
computer programming to implement
algorithms.
Prolog
A
logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and
computational linguistics.
Prolog has its roots in
first-order logic, a
formal logic, and unlike many other
programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily as a
declarative programming language: the program logic is expressed in terms of relations, represented as facts and
rules. A computation is initiated by running a query over these relations.
propositional calculus
A branch of
logic which deals with
propositions (which can be true or false) and argument flow. Compound propositions are formed by connecting propositions by
logical connectives. The propositions without logical connectives are called atomic propositions. Unlike
first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with non-logical objects, predicates about them, or quantifiers. However, all the machinery of propositional logic is included in first-order logic and higher-order logics. In this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic and higher-order logic.
Python
An
interpreted,
high-level,
general-purpose programming language created by
Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. Python's design philosophy emphasizes
code readability with its notable use of
significant whitespace. Its language constructs and
object-oriented approach aim to help programmers write clear, logical code for small and large-scale projects.
Q
qualification problem
In philosophy and artificial intelligence (especially
knowledge-based systems), the qualification problem is concerned with the impossibility of listing all of the
preconditions required for a real-world action to have its intended effect.
It might be posed as how to deal with the things that prevent me from achieving my intended result. It is strongly connected to, and opposite the
ramification side of, the
frame problem.
quantifier
In
logic, quantification specifies the quantity of specimens in the
domain of discourse that satisfy an
open formula. The two most common quantifiers mean "
for all" and "
there exists". For example, in arithmetic, quantifiers allow one to say that the natural numbers go on forever, by writing that for all n (where n is a natural number), there is another number (say, the successor of n) which is one bigger than n.
quantum computing
The use of
quantum-mechanical phenomena such as
superposition and
entanglement to perform
computation. A quantum computer is used to perform such computation, which can be implemented theoretically or physically.
: I-5
query language
Query languages or data query languages (DQLs) are
computer languages used to make queries in
databases and
information systems. Broadly, query languages can be classified according to whether they are database query languages or
information retrieval query languages. The difference is that a database query language attempts to give factual answers to factual questions, while an information retrieval query language attempts to find documents containing information that is relevant to an area of inquiry.
R
R programming language
A
programming language and
free software environment for
statistical computing and graphics supported by the R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
The R language is widely used among
statisticians and
data miners for developing
statistical software and
data analysis.
radial basis function network
In the field of
mathematical modeling, a radial basis function network is an
artificial neural network that uses
radial basis functions as
activation functions. The output of the network is a
linear combination of radial basis functions of the inputs and neuron parameters. Radial basis function networks have many uses, including
function approximation,
time series prediction,
classification, and system
control. They were first formulated in a 1988 paper by Broomhead and Lowe, both researchers at the
Royal Signals and Radar Establishment.
random forest
An
ensemble learning method for
classification,
regression and other tasks that operates by constructing a multitude of
decision trees at training time and outputting the class that is the
mode of the classes (classification) or mean prediction (regression) of the individual trees.
Random decision forests correct for decision trees' habit of
overfitting to their
training set.
reasoning system
In
information technology a reasoning system is a
software system that generates conclusions from available
knowledge using
logical techniques such as
deduction and
induction. Reasoning systems play an important role in the implementation of artificial intelligence and
knowledge-based systems.
recurrent neural network (RNN)
A class of
artificial neural networks where connections between nodes form a
directed graph along a temporal sequence. This allows it to exhibit temporal dynamic behavior. Unlike
feedforward neural networks, RNNs can use their internal state (memory) to process sequences of inputs. This makes them applicable to tasks such as unsegmented, connected
handwriting recognition or
speech recognition.
region connection calculus
reinforcement learning (RL)
An area of
machine learning concerned with how
software agents ought to take
actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Reinforcement learning is one of three basic machine learning paradigms, alongside
supervised learning and
unsupervised learning. It differs from supervised learning in that labelled input/output pairs need not be presented, and sub-optimal actions need not be explicitly corrected. Instead the focus is finding a balance between exploration (of uncharted territory) and exploitation (of current knowledge).
reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF)
A technique that involve training a "reward model" to predict how humans rate the quality of generated content, and then training a
generative AI model to satisfy this reward model via
reinforcement learning. It can be used for example to make the generative AI model more truthful or less harmful.
reservoir computing
A framework for computation that may be viewed as an extension of
neural networks.
Typically an input signal is fed into a fixed (random)
dynamical system called a reservoir and the dynamics of the reservoir map the input to a higher dimension. Then a simple readout mechanism is trained to read the state of the reservoir and map it to the desired output. The main benefit is that training is performed only at the readout stage and the reservoir is fixed.
Liquid-state machines and
echo state networks are two major types of reservoir computing.
Resource Description Framework (RDF)
A family of
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
specifications originally designed as a
metadata data model. It has come to be used as a general method for conceptual description or modeling of information that is implemented in
web resources, using a variety of syntax notations and
data serialization formats. It is also used in
knowledge management applications.
restricted Boltzmann machine (RBM)
A
generative stochastic artificial neural network that can learn a
probability distribution over its set of inputs.
Rete algorithm
A
pattern matching algorithm for implementing
rule-based systems. The algorithm was developed to efficiently apply many
rules or patterns to many objects, or
facts, in a
knowledge base. It is used to determine which of the system's rules should fire based on its data store, its facts.
robotics
An interdisciplinary branch of science and engineering that includes
mechanical engineering,
electronic engineering,
information engineering,
computer science, and others. Robotics deals with the design, construction, operation, and use of
robots, as well as
computer systems for their control,
sensory feedback, and
information processing.
rule-based system
In
computer science, a rule-based system is used to store and manipulate knowledge to interpret information in a useful way. It is often used in artificial intelligence applications and research. Normally, the term rule-based system is applied to systems involving human-crafted or curated rule sets. Rule-based systems constructed using automatic rule inference, such as
rule-based machine learning, are normally excluded from this system type.
S
satisfiability
In
mathematical logic, satisfiability and
validity are elementary concepts of
semantics. A
formula is satisfiable if it is possible to find an
interpretation (
model) that makes the formula true.
A formula is valid if all interpretations make the formula true. The opposites of these concepts are unsatisfiability and invalidity, that is, a formula is unsatisfiable if none of the interpretations make the formula true, and invalid if some such interpretation makes the formula false. These four concepts are related to each other in a manner exactly analogous to
Aristotle's
square of opposition.
search algorithm
Any
algorithm which solves the
search problem, namely, to retrieve information stored within some data structure, or calculated in the
search space of a
problem domain, either with
discrete or continuous values.
selection
The stage of a
genetic algorithm in which individual genomes are chosen from a population for later breeding (using the
crossover operator).
self-management
The process by which computer systems manage their own operation without human intervention.
semantic network
A
knowledge base that represents
semantic relations between
concepts in a network. This is often used as a form of
knowledge representation. It is a
directed or
undirected graph consisting of
vertices, which represent
concepts, and
edges, which represent
semantic relations between concepts,
mapping or connecting
semantic fields.
semantic reasoner
A piece of software able to infer
logical consequences from a set of asserted facts or
axioms. The notion of a semantic reasoner generalizes that of an
inference engine, by providing a richer set of mechanisms to work with. The
inference rules are commonly specified by means of an
ontology language, and often a
description logic language. Many reasoners use
first-order predicate logic to perform reasoning; inference commonly proceeds by
forward chaining and
backward chaining.
semantic query
Allows for queries and analytics of associative and
contextual nature. Semantic queries enable the retrieval of both explicitly and implicitly derived information based on syntactic, semantic and structural information contained in data. They are designed to deliver precise results (possibly the distinctive selection of one single piece of information) or to answer more fuzzy and wide-open questions through
pattern matching and
digital reasoning.
semantics
In
programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of
programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of
syntactically valid
strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically invalid strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will be executed on a certain
platform, hence creating a
model of computation.
sensor fusion
The combining of
sensory data or data derived from disparate sources such that the resulting
information has less uncertainty than would be possible when these sources were used individually.
separation logic
An extension of
Hoare logic, a way of reasoning about programs. The assertion language of separation logic is a special case of the
logic of bunched implications (BI).
similarity learning
An area of supervised
machine learning in artificial intelligence. It is closely related to
regression and
classification, but the goal is to learn from a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in
ranking, in
recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.
simulated annealing (SA)
A
probabilistic technique for approximating the
global optimum of a given
function. Specifically, it is a
metaheuristic to approximate
global optimization in a large
search space for an
optimization problem.
situated approach
In artificial intelligence research, the situated approach builds agents that are designed to behave effectively successfully in their environment. This requires designing AI "from the bottom-up" by focussing on the basic perceptual and motor skills required to survive. The situated approach gives a much lower priority to abstract reasoning or problem-solving skills.
situation calculus
A
logic formalism designed for representing and reasoning about dynamical domains.
Selective Linear Definite clause resolution
The basic
inference rule used in
logic programming. It is a refinement of
resolution, which is both
sound and refutation
complete for
Horn clauses.
software
A collection of
data or
computer instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to
physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In
computer science and
software engineering, computer software is all
information processed by
computer systems,
programs and
data. Computer software includes
computer programs,
libraries and related non-executable
data, such as
online documentation or
digital media.
software engineering
The application of
engineering to the
development of
software in a systematic method.
spatial-temporal reasoning
An area of artificial intelligence which draws from the fields of
computer science,
cognitive science, and
cognitive psychology. The theoretic goal—on the cognitive side—involves representing and reasoning spatial-temporal knowledge in mind. The applied goal—on the computing side—involves developing high-level control systems of automata for
navigating and understanding time and space.
SPARQL
An
RDF query language—that is, a
semantic query language for
databases—able to retrieve and manipulate data stored in
Resource Description Framework (RDF) format.
speech recognition
An interdisciplinary subfield of
computational linguistics that develops methodologies and technologies that enables the recognition and
translation of spoken language into text by computers. It is also known as automatic speech recognition (ASR), computer speech recognition or speech to text (STT). It incorporates knowledge and research in the
linguistics,
computer science, and
electrical engineering fields.
spiking neural network (SNN)
An
artificial neural network that more closely mimics a natural neural network.
In addition to
neuronal and
synaptic state, SNNs incorporate the concept of time into their
Operating Model.
state
In
information technology and
computer science, a program is described as stateful if it is designed to remember preceding events or user interactions;
the remembered information is called the state of the system.
statistical classification
In
machine learning and
statistics, classification is the problem of identifying to which of a set of
categories (sub-populations) a new observation belongs, on the basis of a
training set of data containing observations (or instances) whose category membership is known. Examples are assigning a given email to the
"spam" or "non-spam" class, and assigning a diagnosis to a given patient based on observed characteristics of the patient (sex, blood pressure, presence or absence of certain symptoms, etc.). Classification is an example of
pattern recognition.
statistical relational learning (SRL)
A subdiscipline of artificial intelligence and
machine learning that is concerned with
domain models that exhibit both
uncertainty (which can be dealt with using statistical methods) and complex,
relational structure.
Note that SRL is sometimes called Relational Machine Learning (RML) in the literature. Typically, the
knowledge representation formalisms developed in SRL use (a subset of)
first-order logic to describe relational properties of a domain in a general manner (
universal quantification) and draw upon
probabilistic graphical models (such as
Bayesian networks or
Markov networks) to model the uncertainty; some also build upon the methods of
inductive logic programming.
Any
optimization method that generates and uses
random variables. For stochastic problems, the random variables appear in the formulation of the optimization problem itself, which involves random
objective functions or random constraints. Stochastic optimization methods also include methods with random iterates. Some stochastic optimization methods use random iterates to solve stochastic problems, combining both meanings of stochastic optimization.
Stochastic optimization methods generalize
deterministic methods for deterministic problems.
An approach used in
computer science as a
semantic component of
natural language understanding. Stochastic models generally use the definition of segments of words as basic semantic units for the semantic models, and in some cases involve a two layered approach.
Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver (STRIPS)
subject-matter expert
superintelligence
A hypothetical
agent that possesses
intelligence far surpassing that of the
brightest and most
gifted human minds. Superintelligence may also refer to a property of problem-solving systems (e.g., superintelligent language translators or engineering assistants) whether or not these high-level intellectual competencies are embodied in agents that act within the physical world. A superintelligence may or may not be created by an
intelligence explosion and be associated with a
technological singularity.
supervised learning
The
machine learning task of learning a function that maps an input to an output based on example input-output pairs.
It infers a function from labeled
training data consisting of a set of training examples.
In supervised learning, each example is a pair consisting of an input object (typically a vector) and a desired output value (also called the supervisory signal). A supervised learning algorithm analyzes the training data and produces an inferred function, which can be used for mapping new examples. An optimal scenario will allow for the algorithm to correctly determine the class labels for unseen instances. This requires the learning algorithm to generalize from the training data to unseen situations in a "reasonable" way (see
inductive bias).
support-vector machines
In
machine learning, support-vector machines (SVMs, also support-vector networks
) are
supervised learning models with associated learning
algorithms that analyze data used for
classification and
regression analysis.
swarm intelligence (SI)
The
collective behavior of
decentralized,
self-organized systems, either natural or artificial. The expression was introduced in the context of cellular robotic systems.
symbolic artificial intelligence
The term for the collection of all methods in
artificial intelligence research that are based on high-level "symbolic" (human-readable) representations of problems,
logic, and
search.
synthetic intelligence (SI)
An alternative term for
artificial intelligence which emphasizes that the intelligence of machines need not be an imitation or in any way artificial; it can be a genuine form of intelligence.
systems neuroscience
A subdiscipline of
neuroscience and
systems biology that studies the structure and function of neural circuits and systems. It is an umbrella term, encompassing a number of areas of study concerned with how
nerve cells behave when connected together to form
neural pathways,
neural circuits, and larger
brain networks.
T
technological singularity
A
hypothetical point in the future when technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unfathomable changes to human civilization.
temporal difference learning
A class of
model-free reinforcement learning methods which learn by
bootstrapping from the current estimate of the value function. These methods sample from the environment, like
Monte Carlo methods, and perform updates based on current estimates, like
dynamic programming methods.
tensor network theory
A theory of
brain function (particularly that of the
cerebellum) that provides a mathematical model of the
transformation of sensory
space-time coordinates into motor coordinates and vice versa by cerebellar
neuronal networks. The theory was developed as a
geometrization of brain function (especially of the
central nervous system) using
tensors.
TensorFlow
A
free and
open-source software library for
dataflow and
differentiable programming across a range of tasks. It is a symbolic math library, and is also used for
machine learning applications such as
neural networks.
theoretical computer science (TCS)
A subset of general
computer science and
mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing and includes the
theory of computation.
theory of computation
In
theoretical computer science and
mathematics, the theory of computation is the branch that deals with how efficiently problems can be solved on a
model of computation, using an
algorithm. The field is divided into three major branches:
automata theory and languages,
computability theory, and
computational complexity theory, which are linked by the question: "What are the fundamental capabilities and limitations of computers?".
Thompson sampling
A
heuristic for choosing actions that addresses the exploration-exploitation dilemma in the
multi-armed bandit problem. It consists in choosing the action that maximizes the expected reward with respect to a randomly drawn belief.
time complexity
The
computational complexity that describes the amount of time it takes to run an
algorithm. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, supposing that each elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus, the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm are taken to differ by at most a
constant factor.
transformer
A type of deep learning architecture that exploits a multi-head
attention mechanism. Transformers address some of the limitations of
LSTMs, and became widely used in
natural language processing, although it can also process other types of data such as images in the case of
vision transformers.
transhumanism
An international
philosophical movement that advocates for the transformation of the
human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies to greatly
enhance human intellect and physiology.
transition system
In
theoretical computer science, a transition system is a concept used in the study of
computation. It is used to describe the potential behavior of
discrete systems. It consists of
states and transitions between states, which may be labeled with labels chosen from a set; the same label may appear on more than one transition. If the label set is a
singleton, the system is essentially unlabeled, and a simpler definition that omits the labels is possible.
tree traversal
A form of
graph traversal and refers to the process of visiting (checking and/or updating) each node in a
tree data structure, exactly once. Such traversals are classified by the order in which the nodes are visited.
true quantified Boolean formula
In
computational complexity theory, the language TQBF is a
formal language consisting of the true quantified Boolean formulas. A (fully) quantified Boolean formula is a formula in
quantified propositional logic where every variable is quantified (or
bound), using either
existential or
universal quantifiers, at the beginning of the sentence. Such a formula is equivalent to either true or false (since there are no
free variables). If such a formula evaluates to true, then that formula is in the language TQBF. It is also known as QSAT (Quantified
SAT).
Turing machine
Turing test
A test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour equivalent to, or indistinguishable from, that of a human, developed by
Alan Turing in 1950. Turing proposed that a human evaluator would
judge natural language conversations between a human and a machine designed to generate human-like responses. The evaluator would be aware that one of the two partners in conversation is a machine, and all participants would be separated from one another. The conversation would be limited to a text-only channel such as a
computer keyboard and
screen so the result would not depend on the machine's ability to render words as speech.
If the evaluator cannot reliably tell the machine from the human, the machine is said to have passed the test. The test results do not depend on the machine's ability to give correct answers to questions, only how closely its answers resemble those a human would give.
type system
In
programming languages, a set of rules that assigns a property called
type to the various constructs of a
computer program, such as
variables,
expressions,
functions, or
modules.
These types formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for
algebraic data types, data structures, or other components (e.g. "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean"). The main purpose of a type system is to reduce possibilities for
bugs in computer programs
by defining
interfaces between different parts of a computer program, and then checking that the parts have been connected in a consistent way. This checking can happen statically (at
compile time), dynamically (at
run time), or as a combination of static and dynamic checking. Type systems have other purposes as well, such as expressing business rules, enabling certain compiler optimizations, allowing for
multiple dispatch, providing a form of documentation, etc.
U
unsupervised learning
A type of self-organized
Hebbian learning that helps find previously unknown patterns in data set without pre-existing labels. It is also known as
self-organization and allows modeling
probability densities of given inputs.
It is one of the main three categories of machine learning, along with
supervised and
reinforcement learning. Semi-supervised learning has also been described and is a hybridization of supervised and unsupervised techniques.
V
vision processing unit (VPU)
A type of
microprocessor designed to
accelerate machine vision tasks.
Value-alignment complete – Analogous to an
AI-complete problem, a value-alignment complete problem is a problem where the
AI control problem needs to be fully solved to solve it.
W
Watson
A
question-answering computer system capable of answering questions posed in
natural language,
developed in
IBM's DeepQA project by a research team led by
principal investigator David Ferrucci.
Watson was named after IBM's first CEO, industrialist
Thomas J. Watson.
weak AI
Artificial intelligence that is focused on one narrow task.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
The main international
standards organization for the
World Wide Web (abbreviated WWW or W3).
See also
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R Foundation
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The R Core Team asks authors who use R in their data analysis to cite the software using:
R Core Team (2016). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL https://R-project.org/.
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Notes
- ^ polynomial time refers to how quickly the number of operations needed by an algorithm, relative to the size of the problem, grows. It is therefore a measure of efficiency of an algorithm.
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