Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics

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Quantum mechanics
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i ℏ d d t \| Ψ ⟩ = H ^ \| Ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}\|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}\|\Psi \rangle } $i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}\|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}\|\Psi \rangle$ Schrödinger equation
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This is a glossary for the terminology often encountered in undergraduate quantum mechanics courses.

Cautions:

Different authors may have different definitions for the same term.
The discussions are restricted to Schrödinger picture and non-relativistic quantum mechanics.
Notation:
- | x ⟩ {\displaystyle |x\rangle } $|x\rangle$ - position eigenstate
- | α ⟩ , | β ⟩ , | γ ⟩ . . . {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle ,|\beta \rangle ,|\gamma \rangle ...} $|\alpha \rangle ,|\beta \rangle ,|\gamma \rangle ...$ - wave function of the state of the system
- Ψ {\displaystyle \Psi } $\Psi$ - total wave function of a system
- ψ {\displaystyle \psi } $\psi$ - wave function of a system (maybe a particle)
- ψ α ( x , t ) {\displaystyle \psi _{\alpha }(x,t)} $\psi _{\alpha }(x,t)$ - wave function of a particle in position representation, equal to ⟨ x | α ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x|\alpha \rangle } $\langle x|\alpha \rangle$

Formalism

Kinematical postulates

a complete set of wave functions A basis of the Hilbert space of wave functions with respect to a system. bra The Hermitian conjugate of a ket is called a bra. ⟨ α | = ( | α ⟩ ) † {\displaystyle \langle \alpha |=(|\alpha \rangle )^{\dagger }}

\langle \alpha |=(|\alpha \rangle )^{\dagger }

. See "bra–ket notation". Bra–ket notation The bra–ket notation is a way to represent the states and operators of a system by angle brackets and vertical bars, for example, | α ⟩ {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle }

|\alpha \rangle

and | α ⟩ ⟨ β | {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle \langle \beta |}

|\alpha \rangle \langle \beta |

. Density matrix Physically, the density matrix is a way to represent pure states and mixed states. The density matrix of pure state whose ket is | α ⟩ {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle }

|\alpha \rangle

is | α ⟩ ⟨ α | {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle \langle \alpha |}

|\alpha \rangle \langle \alpha |

. Mathematically, a density matrix has to satisfy the following conditions:

Tr ⁡ ( ρ ) = 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {Tr} (\rho )=1} $\operatorname {Tr} (\rho )=1$
ρ † = ρ {\displaystyle \rho ^{\dagger }=\rho } $\rho ^{\dagger }=\rho$

Density operator Synonymous to "density matrix". Dirac notation Synonymous to "bra–ket notation". Hilbert space Given a system, the possible pure state can be represented as a vector in a Hilbert space. Each ray (vectors differ by phase and magnitude only) in the corresponding Hilbert space represent a state. Ket A wave function expressed in the form | a ⟩ {\displaystyle |a\rangle }

|a\rangle

is called a ket. See "bra–ket notation". Mixed state A mixed state is a statistical ensemble of pure state. criterion:

Pure state: Tr ⁡ ( ρ 2 ) = 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {Tr} (\rho ^{2})=1} $\operatorname {Tr} (\rho ^{2})=1$
Mixed state: Tr ⁡ ( ρ 2 ) < 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {Tr} (\rho ^{2})<1} $\operatorname {Tr} (\rho ^{2})<1$

Normalizable wave function A wave function | α ′ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\alpha '\rangle }

|\alpha '\rangle

is said to be normalizable if ⟨ α ′ | α ′ ⟩ < ∞ {\displaystyle \langle \alpha '|\alpha '\rangle <\infty }

\langle \alpha '|\alpha '\rangle <\infty

. A normalizable wave function can be made to be normalized by | a ′ ⟩ → α = | α ′ ⟩ ⟨ α ′ | α ′ ⟩ {\displaystyle |a'\rangle \to \alpha ={\frac {|\alpha '\rangle }{\sqrt {\langle \alpha '|\alpha '\rangle }}}}

|a'\rangle \to \alpha ={\frac {|\alpha '\rangle }{\sqrt {\langle \alpha '|\alpha '\rangle }}}

. Normalized wave function A wave function | a ⟩ {\displaystyle |a\rangle }

|a\rangle

is said to be normalized if ⟨ a | a ⟩ = 1 {\displaystyle \langle a|a\rangle =1}

\langle a|a\rangle =1

. Pure state A state which can be represented as a wave function / ket in Hilbert space / solution of Schrödinger equation is called pure state. See "mixed state". Quantum numbers a way of representing a state by several numbers, which corresponds to a complete set of commuting observables. A common example of quantum numbers is the possible state of an electron in a central potential: ( n , ℓ , m , s ) {\displaystyle (n,\ell ,m,s)}

(n,\ell ,m,s)

, which corresponds to the eigenstate of observables H {\displaystyle H}

H

(in terms of r {\displaystyle r}

r

), L {\displaystyle L}

L

(magnitude of angular momentum), L z {\displaystyle L_{z}}

L_{z}

(angular momentum in z {\displaystyle z}

z

-direction), and S z {\displaystyle S_{z}}

S_{z}

. Spin wave function Part of a wave function of particle(s). See "total wave function of a particle". Spinor Synonymous to "spin wave function". Spatial wave function Part of a wave function of particle(s). See "total wave function of a particle". State A state is a complete description of the observable properties of a physical system. Sometimes the word is used as a synonym of "wave function" or "pure state". State vector synonymous to "wave function". Statistical ensemble A large number of copies of a system. System A sufficiently isolated part in the universe for investigation. Tensor product of Hilbert space When we are considering the total system as a composite system of two subsystems A and B, the wave functions of the composite system are in a Hilbert space H A ⊗ H B {\displaystyle H_{A}\otimes H_{B}}

H_{A}\otimes H_{B}

, if the Hilbert space of the wave functions for A and B are H A {\displaystyle H_{A}}

H_{A}

and H B {\displaystyle H_{B}}

H_{B}

respectively. Total wave function of a particle For single-particle system, the total wave function Ψ {\displaystyle \Psi }

\Psi

of a particle can be expressed as a product of spatial wave function and the spinor. The total wave functions are in the tensor product space of the Hilbert space of the spatial part (which is spanned by the position eigenstates) and the Hilbert space for the spin. Wave function The word "wave function" could mean one of following:

A vector in Hilbert space which can represent a state; synonymous to "ket" or "state vector".
The state vector in a specific basis. It can be seen as a covariant vector in this case.
The state vector in position representation, e.g. ψ α ( x 0 ) = ⟨ x 0 | α ⟩ {\displaystyle \psi _{\alpha }(x_{0})=\langle x_{0}|\alpha \rangle } $\psi _{\alpha }(x_{0})=\langle x_{0}|\alpha \rangle$ , where | x 0 ⟩ {\displaystyle |x_{0}\rangle } $|x_{0}\rangle$ is the position eigenstate.

Dynamics

Degeneracy See "degenerate energy level". Degenerate energy level If the energy of different state (wave functions which are not scalar multiple of each other) is the same, the energy level is called degenerate. There is no degeneracy in a 1D system. Energy spectrum The energy spectrum refers to the possible energy of a system. For bound system (bound states), the energy spectrum is discrete; for unbound system (scattering states), the energy spectrum is continuous. related mathematical topics: Sturm–Liouville equation Hamiltonian H ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}}

{\hat {H}}

The operator represents the total energy of the system. Schrödinger equation The Schrödinger equation relates the Hamiltonian operator acting on a wave function to its time evolution (Equation 1): i ℏ ∂ ∂ t | α ⟩ = H ^ | α ⟩ {\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\alpha \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\alpha \rangle }

i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\alpha \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\alpha \rangle

Equation (1) is sometimes called "Time-Dependent Schrödinger equation" (TDSE). Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation (TISE) A modification of the Time-Dependent Schrödinger equation as an eigenvalue problem. The solutions are energy eigenstates of the system (Equation 2): E | α ⟩ = H ^ | α ⟩ {\displaystyle E|\alpha \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\alpha \rangle }

E|\alpha \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\alpha \rangle

Dynamics related to single particle in a potential / other spatial properties

In this situation, the SE is given by the form i ℏ ∂ ∂ t Ψ α ( r , t ) = H ^ Ψ α ( r , t ) = ( − ℏ 2 2 m ∇ 2 + V ( r ) ) Ψ α ( r , t ) = − ℏ 2 2 m ∇ 2 Ψ α ( r , t ) + V ( r ) Ψ α ( r , t ) {\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)={\hat {H}}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)=\left(-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+V(\mathbf {r} )\right)\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)=-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)+V(\mathbf {r} )\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)} $i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)={\hat {H}}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)=\left(-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+V(\mathbf {r} )\right)\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)=-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)+V(\mathbf {r} )\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)$ It can be derived from (1) by considering Ψ α ( x , t ) := ⟨ x | α ⟩ {\displaystyle \Psi _{\alpha }(x,t):=\langle x|\alpha \rangle } $\Psi _{\alpha }(x,t):=\langle x|\alpha \rangle$ and H ^ := − ℏ 2 2 m ∇ 2 + V ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}:=-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+{\hat {V}}} ${\hat {H}}:=-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+{\hat {V}}$

Bound state A state is called bound state if its position probability density at infinite tends to zero for all the time. Roughly speaking, we can expect to find the particle(s) in a finite size region with certain probability. More precisely, | ψ ( r , t ) | 2 → 0 {\displaystyle |\psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)|^{2}\to 0}

|\psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)|^{2}\to 0

when | r | → + ∞ {\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} |\to +\infty }

|\mathbf {r} |\to +\infty

, for all t > 0 {\displaystyle t>0}

t>0

. There is a criterion in terms of energy: Let E {\displaystyle E}

E

be the expectation energy of the state. It is a bound state if and only if E < min ⁡ { V ( r → − ∞ ) , V ( r → + ∞ ) } {\displaystyle E<\operatorname {min} \{V(r\to -\infty ),V(r\to +\infty )\}}

E<\operatorname {min} \{V(r\to -\infty ),V(r\to +\infty )\}

. Position representation and momentum representation Position representation of a wave function Ψ α ( x , t ) := ⟨ x | α ⟩ {\displaystyle \Psi _{\alpha }(x,t):=\langle x|\alpha \rangle }

\Psi _{\alpha }(x,t):=\langle x|\alpha \rangle

, momentum representation of a wave function Ψ ~ α ( p , t ) := ⟨ p | α ⟩ {\displaystyle {\tilde {\Psi }}_{\alpha }(p,t):=\langle p|\alpha \rangle }

{\tilde {\Psi }}_{\alpha }(p,t):=\langle p|\alpha \rangle

; where | x ⟩ {\displaystyle |x\rangle }

|x\rangle

is the position eigenstate and | p ⟩ {\displaystyle |p\rangle }

|p\rangle

the momentum eigenstate respectively. The two representations are linked by Fourier transform. Probability amplitude A probability amplitude is of the form ⟨ α | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \alpha |\psi \rangle }

\langle \alpha |\psi \rangle

. Probability current Having the metaphor of probability density as mass density, then probability current J {\displaystyle J}

J

is the current: J ( x , t ) = i ℏ 2 m ( ψ ∂ ψ ∗ ∂ x − ∂ ψ ∂ x ψ ) {\displaystyle J(x,t)={\frac {i\hbar }{2m}}\left(\psi {\frac {\partial \psi ^{*}}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial \psi }{\partial x}}\psi \right)}

J(x,t)={\frac {i\hbar }{2m}}\left(\psi {\frac {\partial \psi ^{*}}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial \psi }{\partial x}}\psi \right)

The probability current and probability density together satisfy the continuity equation: ∂ ∂ t | ψ ( x , t ) | 2 + ∇ ⋅ J ( x , t ) = 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\psi (x,t)|^{2}+\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} (x,t)=0}

{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\psi (x,t)|^{2}+\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} (x,t)=0

Probability density Given the wave function of a particle, | ψ ( x , t ) | 2 {\displaystyle |\psi (x,t)|^{2}}

|\psi (x,t)|^{2}

is the probability density at position x {\displaystyle x}

x

and time t {\displaystyle t}

t

. | ψ ( x 0 , t ) | 2 d x {\displaystyle |\psi (x_{0},t)|^{2}\,dx}

|\psi (x_{0},t)|^{2}\,dx

means the probability of finding the particle near x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}}

x_{0}

. Scattering state The wave function of scattering state can be understood as a propagating wave. See also "bound state". There is a criterion in terms of energy: Let E {\displaystyle E}

E

be the expectation energy of the state. It is a scattering state if and only if E > min ⁡ { V ( r → − ∞ ) , V ( r → + ∞ ) } {\displaystyle E>\operatorname {min} \{V(r\to -\infty ),V(r\to +\infty )\}}

E>\operatorname {min} \{V(r\to -\infty ),V(r\to +\infty )\}

. Square-integrable Square-integrable is a necessary condition for a function being the position/momentum representation of a wave function of a bound state of the system. Given the position representation Ψ ( x , t ) {\displaystyle \Psi (x,t)}

\Psi (x,t)

of a state vector of a wave function, square-integrable means:

1D case: ∫ − ∞ + ∞ | Ψ ( x , t ) | 2 d x < + ∞ {\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{+\infty }|\Psi (x,t)|^{2}\,dx<+\infty } $\int _{-\infty }^{+\infty }|\Psi (x,t)|^{2}\,dx<+\infty$ .
3D case: ∫ V | Ψ ( r , t ) | 2 d V < + ∞ {\displaystyle \int _{V}|\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)|^{2}\,dV<+\infty } $\int _{V}|\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)|^{2}\,dV<+\infty$ .

Stationary state A stationary state of a bound system is an eigenstate of Hamiltonian operator. Classically, it corresponds to standing wave. It is equivalent to the following things:

an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian operator
an eigenfunction of Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation
a state of definite energy
a state which "every expectation value is constant in time"
a state whose probability density ( | ψ ( x , t ) | 2 {\displaystyle |\psi (x,t)|^{2}} $|\psi (x,t)|^{2}$ ) does not change with respect to time, i.e. d d t | Ψ ( x , t ) | 2 = 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi (x,t)|^{2}=0} ${\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi (x,t)|^{2}=0$

Measurement postulates

Born's rule The probability of the state | α ⟩ {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle }

|\alpha \rangle

collapse to an eigenstate | k ⟩ {\displaystyle |k\rangle }

|k\rangle

of an observable is given by | ⟨ k | α ⟩ | 2 {\displaystyle |\langle k|\alpha \rangle |^{2}}

|\langle k|\alpha \rangle |^{2}

. Collapse "Collapse" means the sudden process which the state of the system will "suddenly" change to an eigenstate of the observable during measurement. Eigenstates An eigenstate of an operator A {\displaystyle A}

A

is a vector satisfied the eigenvalue equation: A | α ⟩ = c | α ⟩ {\displaystyle A|\alpha \rangle =c|\alpha \rangle }

A|\alpha \rangle =c|\alpha \rangle

, where c {\displaystyle c}

c

is a scalar. Usually, in bra–ket notation, the eigenstate will be represented by its corresponding eigenvalue if the corresponding observable is understood. Expectation value The expectation value ⟨ M ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle M\rangle }

\langle M\rangle

of the observable M with respect to a state | α {\displaystyle |\alpha }

|\alpha

is the average outcome of measuring M {\displaystyle M}

M

with respect to an ensemble of state | α {\displaystyle |\alpha }

|\alpha

. ⟨ M ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle M\rangle }

\langle M\rangle

can be calculated by: ⟨ M ⟩ = ⟨ α | M | α ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle M\rangle =\langle \alpha |M|\alpha \rangle .}

\langle M\rangle =\langle \alpha |M|\alpha \rangle .

If the state is given by a density matrix ρ {\displaystyle \rho }

\rho

, ⟨ M ⟩ = Tr ⁡ ( M ρ ) {\displaystyle \langle M\rangle =\operatorname {Tr} (M\rho )}

\langle M\rangle =\operatorname {Tr} (M\rho )

. Hermitian operator An operator satisfying A = A † {\displaystyle A=A^{\dagger }}

A=A^{\dagger }

. Equivalently, ⟨ α | A | α ⟩ = ⟨ α | A † | α ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \alpha |A|\alpha \rangle =\langle \alpha |A^{\dagger }|\alpha \rangle }

\langle \alpha |A|\alpha \rangle =\langle \alpha |A^{\dagger }|\alpha \rangle

for all allowable wave function | α ⟩ {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle }

|\alpha \rangle

. Observable Mathematically, it is represented by a Hermitian operator.

Indistinguishable particles

Exchange Intrinsically identical particles If the intrinsic properties (properties that can be measured but are independent of the quantum state, e.g. charge, total spin, mass) of two particles are the same, they are said to be (intrinsically) identical. Indistinguishable particles If a system shows measurable differences when one of its particles is replaced by another particle, these two particles are called distinguishable. Bosons Bosons are particles with integer spin (s = 0, 1, 2, ... ). They can either be elementary (like photons) or composite (such as mesons, nuclei or even atoms). There are five known elementary bosons: the four force carrying gauge bosons γ (photon), g (gluon), Z (Z boson) and W (W boson), as well as the Higgs boson. Fermions Fermions are particles with half-integer spin (s = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, ... ). Like bosons, they can be elementary or composite particles. There are two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons, which are the main constituents of ordinary matter. Anti-symmetrization of wave functions Symmetrization of wave functions Pauli exclusion principle

Quantum statistical mechanics

Bose–Einstein distribution Bose–Einstein condensation Bose–Einstein condensation state (BEC state) Fermi energy Fermi–Dirac distribution Slater determinant

Nonlocality

Entanglement Bell's inequality Entangled state separable state no-cloning theorem

Rotation: spin/angular momentum

Spin angular momentum Clebsch–Gordan coefficients singlet state and triplet state

Approximation methods

adiabatic approximation Born–Oppenheimer approximation WKB approximation time-dependent perturbation theory time-independent perturbation theory

Historical Terms / semi-classical treatment

Ehrenfest theorem A theorem connecting the classical mechanics and result derived from Schrödinger equation. first quantization x → x ^ , p → i ℏ ∂ ∂ x {\displaystyle x\to {\hat {x}},\,p\to i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}}

x\to {\hat {x}},\,p\to i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}

wave–particle duality

Uncategorized terms

uncertainty principle Canonical commutation relations The canonical commutation relations are the commutators between canonically conjugate variables. For example, position x ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {x}}}

{\hat {x}}

and momentum p ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {p}}}

{\hat {p}}

: = x ^ p ^ − p ^ x ^ = i ℏ {\displaystyle ={\hat {x}}{\hat {p}}-{\hat {p}}{\hat {x}}=i\hbar }

={\hat {x}}{\hat {p}}-{\hat {p}}{\hat {x}}=i\hbar

Path integral wavenumber

Notes

^ Exception: superselection rules
^ Some textbooks (e.g. Cohen Tannoudji, Liboff) define "stationary state" as "an eigenstate of a Hamiltonian" without specific to bound states.

References

Elementary textbooks
- Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
- Liboff, Richard L. (2002). Introductory Quantum Mechanics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8714-5.
- Shankar, R. (1994). Principles of Quantum Mechanics. Springer. ISBN 0-306-44790-8.
- Claude Cohen-Tannoudji; Bernard Diu; Frank Laloë (2006). Quantum Mechanics. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-56952-7.
Graduate textook
- Sakurai, J. J. (1994). Modern Quantum Mechanics. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-53929-2.
Other
- Greenberger, Daniel; Hentschel, Klaus; Weinert, Friedel, eds. (2009). Compendium of Quantum Physics - Concepts, Experiments, History and Philosophy. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-70622-9.
- d'Espagnat, Bernard (2003). Veiled Reality: An Analysis of Quantum Mechanical Concepts (1st ed.). US: Westview Press.

v t e Quantum mechanics
Background	Introduction History Timeline Classical mechanics Old quantum theory Glossary
Fundamentals	Born rule Bra–ket notation Complementarity Density matrix Energy level Ground state Excited state Degenerate levels Zero-point energy Entanglement Hamiltonian Interference Decoherence Measurement Nonlocality Quantum state Superposition Tunnelling Scattering theory Symmetry in quantum mechanics Uncertainty Wave function Collapse Wave–particle duality
Formulations	Formulations Heisenberg Interaction Matrix mechanics Schrödinger Path integral formulation Phase space
Equations	Dirac Klein–Gordon Pauli Rydberg Schrödinger
Interpretations	Bayesian Consistent histories Copenhagen de Broglie–Bohm Ensemble Hidden-variable Local Superdeterminism Many-worlds Objective collapse Quantum logic Relational Transactional Von Neumann–Wigner
Experiments	Bell test Davisson–Germer Delayed-choice quantum eraser Double-slit Franck–Hertz Mach–Zehnder interferometer Elitzur–Vaidman Popper Quantum eraser Stern–Gerlach Wheeler's delayed choice
Science	Quantum biology Quantum chemistry Quantum chaos Quantum cosmology Quantum differential calculus Quantum dynamics Quantum geometry Quantum measurement problem Quantum mind Quantum stochastic calculus Quantum spacetime
Technology	Quantum algorithms Quantum amplifier Quantum bus Quantum cellular automata Quantum finite automata Quantum channel Quantum circuit Quantum complexity theory Quantum computing Timeline Quantum cryptography Quantum electronics Quantum error correction Quantum imaging Quantum image processing Quantum information Quantum key distribution Quantum logic Quantum logic gates Quantum machine Quantum machine learning Quantum metamaterial Quantum metrology Quantum network Quantum neural network Quantum optics Quantum programming Quantum sensing Quantum simulator Quantum teleportation
Extensions	Quantum fluctuation Casimir effect Quantum statistical mechanics Quantum field theory History Quantum gravity Relativistic quantum mechanics
Related	Schrödinger's cat in popular culture Wigner's friend EPR paradox Quantum mysticism
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